Abstract
I introduce the construct of climate for inclusion, which involves eliminating relational sources of bias by ensuring that identity group status is unrelated to access to resources, creating expectations and opportunities for heterogeneous individuals to establish personalized cross-cutting ties, and integrating ideas across boundaries in joint problem solving. I show that within inclusive climates, interpersonal bias is reduced in such a way that gender diversity is associated with lower levels of conflict. In turn, the negative effect that group conflict typically has on unit-level satisfaction disappears. This has important implications, as unit-level satisfaction is negatively associated with turnover in groups.
REFERENCES
- 1994. Nursing turnover and hospital efficiency: An organization-level analysis. Industrial Relations, 33: 505–520. Google Scholar
- 2007. Assessing the impact of nonresponse on work group diversity effects. Organizational Research Methods, 10: 262–286. Google Scholar
- 1954. The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Google Scholar
- 2000. Conflict management, efficacy, and performance in organizational teams. Personnel Psychology, 53: 625–642. Google Scholar
- 1996. Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision making: Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 39: 123–148.Link , Google Scholar
- 1978. Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. Google Scholar
- 2003. The role of space as both a conflict trigger and a conflict control mechanism in culturally heterogeneous workgroups. Applied Psychology, 52: 383–412. Google Scholar
- 1984. Determinants of R & D compensation strategies in the high tech industry. Personnel Psychology, 37: 635–650. Google Scholar
- 1999. The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54: 462–479. Google Scholar
- 2001. Labor pains: Change in organizational models and employee turnover in young, high-tech firms. American Journal of Sociology, 106: 960–1012. Google Scholar
- 2011. Getting specific about demographic diversity variable and team performance relationships: A meta-analysis. Journal of Management, 37: 709–743. Google Scholar
- 2007. Harassment based on sex: Protecting social status in the context of gender hierarchy. Academy of Management Review, 32: 641–658.Link , Google Scholar
- 1997. Status characteristics and social interaction. New York: Elsevier. Google Scholar
- 1984. Cultural relations in plural societies: Alternatives to segregation and their socio-psychological implications. In Miller N.Brewer M. (Eds.), Groups in contact: 11–29. New York: Academic. Google Scholar
- 1977. Inequality and heterogeneity. New York: Free Press. Google Scholar
- 2000. Within-group agreement, non-independence, and reliability: Implications for data aggregation and analysis. In Klein K. J.Kozlowski S. W. J. (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions, and new directions: 349–381. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar
- 1999. A framework for building organizational inclusion. A Report from the 1998 Alice and Richard Netter Labor-Management Public Interest Seminar, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. Google Scholar
- 1999. The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love or outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55: 429–444. Google Scholar
- 1986. Choice behavior in social dilemmas: Effects of social identity, group size, and decision framing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50: 543–549. Google Scholar
- 1984. Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on desegregation. In Miller N.Brewer M. B. (Eds.), Group in contact: The psychology of desegregation: 281–302. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Google Scholar
- 1988. Contact and cooperation: When do they work? In Katz P.Taylor D. (Eds.), Eliminating racism: Means and controversies: 315–326. New York: Plenum. Google Scholar
- 2000. The impact of identity orientation on individual and organizational outcomes in demographically diverse settings. Academy of Management Review, 25: 82–101.Link , Google Scholar
- 2001. Identity orientation and intergroup relations in organizations. In Hogg M. A.Terry D. J. (Eds.), Social identity processes in organizational contexts: 49–65. Philadelphia: Psychological Press. Google Scholar
- 2006. Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York: Guilford. Google Scholar
- 2009. Social structure shapes cultural stereotypes and emotions: A causal test of the stereotype content model. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 12: 147–155. Google Scholar
- 1998. Functional relations among constructs in the same content domain at different levels of analysis: A typology of composition models. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83: 234–246. Google Scholar
- 2005. Out of sight but not out of mind: Managing invisible social identities in the workplace. Academy of Management Review, 30: 78–95.Link , Google Scholar
- 2002. Justice in teams: Antecedents and consequences of procedural justice climate. Personnel Psychology, 55: 83–109. Google Scholar
- 1993. Cultural diversity in organizations: Theory, research, and practice. San Francisco: Barrett-Koehler. Google Scholar
- 2001. A matter of difference—Diversity and inclusion: What difference does it make? Industrial-Organizational Psychologist, 39: 36–38. Google Scholar
- 2001. Managing relationship conflict and the effectiveness of organizational teams. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22: 309–328. Google Scholar
- 2003. Task versus relationship conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88: 741–749. Google Scholar
- 2001. Minority dissent and team innovation: The importance of participation in decision making. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86: 1191–1201. Google Scholar
- 2007. Workforce diversity and inequality: Power, status, and numbers. In Massey D. S.Cook K. S. (Eds.), Annual review of sociology, vol. 33: 473–501. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews. Google Scholar
- 2000. Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: A current appraisal. In Eckes T.Trautner H. M. (Eds.), The developmental social psychology of gender: 123–175. New York: Psychology Press. Google Scholar
- 1999. Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44: 350. Google Scholar
- 2007. Methods for integrating moderation and mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis. Psychological Methods, 12: 1–22. Google Scholar
- 1995. The power of demography: Women's social constructions of gender identity at work. Academy of Management Journal, 38: 589–634.Abstract , Google Scholar
- 2001. Cultural diversity at work: The effects of diversity perspectives on work group processes and outcomes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46: 229–273. Google Scholar
- 2001. Decategorization and the reduction of bias in the crossed categorization paradigm. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31: 193–216. Google Scholar
- 2002. The out-group must not be so bad after all: The effects of disclosure, typicality, and salience on intergroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83: 313–329. Google Scholar
- 2005. Prejudice and intergroup attributions: The role of personalization and performance feedback. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 8: 391–410. Google Scholar
- 2006. The application of the personalization model in diversity management. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 9: 589–607. Google Scholar
- 1970. Woman's place: Options and limits in professional careers. Berkeley: University of California Press. Google Scholar
- 2004. A matter of difference—Some learning about inclusion: Continuing the dialogue. Industrial-Organizational Psychologist, 41(4): 31–37. Google Scholar
- 2009. Managing intractable identity conflicts. Academy of Management Review, 34: 32–55.Link , Google Scholar
- 2001. Cultural influences on cognitive representations of conflict: Interpretations of conflict episodes in the United States and Japan. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86: 1059–1074. Google Scholar
- 1990. Understanding prosocial behavior, sales performance, and turnover: A group-level analysis in a service context. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75: 698–709. Google Scholar
- 2000. Valuing diversity: A tale of two organizations. Academy of Management Executive, 14(1): 93–105.Abstract , Google Scholar
- 1999. Development of the diversity practices survey. Psychological Reports, 85: 101–103. Google Scholar
- 2008. Discrimination-reducing measures at the relational level. Hastings Law Journal, 59: 1435–1461. Google Scholar
- 1990. Effects of race on organizational experiences, job performance evaluations, and career outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 22: 64–86. Google Scholar
- 2000. A meta-analysis of antecedents and correlates of employee turnover: Update, moderator tests, and research implications for the next millennium. Journal of Management, 26: 463–488. Google Scholar
- 1998. Beyond relational demography: Time and the effects of surface- and deep-level diversity on group cohesion. Academy of Management Journal, 41: 96–107. Google Scholar
- 2007. What's the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 32: 1199–1228.Abstract , Google Scholar
- 2009. Unit-level voluntary turnover rates and customer service quality: Implications of group cohesiveness, newcomer concentration, and size. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94: 1068–1075. Google Scholar
- 1995. Development and psychometric properties of the organizational diversity inventory (ODI). Educational Psychological Measurement, 55: 1047–1051. Google Scholar
- 2009. Does diversity pay? Race, gender, and the business case for diversity. American Sociological Review, 74: 208–224. Google Scholar
- 2003. And the award for best actor goes to …: Facades of conformity in organizational settings. Academy of Management Review, 28: 633–642.Abstract , Google Scholar
- 2009. Wearing the cloak: Antecedents and consequences of creating facades of conformity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94: 727–741. Google Scholar
- 2000. Climate for diversity and its effects on career and organizational attitudes and perceptions. Personnel Review, 29: 324–346. Google Scholar
- 1998. A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires. Organizational Research Methods, 1: 104–121. Google Scholar
- 1983. The managed heart. Berkeley: University of California Press. Google Scholar
- 2000. Social identity and self-categorization processes in organizational contexts. Academy of Management Review, 25: 121–140.Link , Google Scholar
- 2004. Creating and sustaining diversity and inclusion in organizations: Strategies and approaches. In Stockdale M. S.Cosby F. J. (Eds.), The psychology and management of workplace diversity: 245–276. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Google Scholar
- 1995. The impact of human resource management practices on turnover, productivity, and corporate financial performance. Academy of Management Journal, 38: 635–672.Link , Google Scholar
- 2003. Recent research on team and organizational diversity: SWOT analysis and implications. Journal of Management, 29: 801–830. Google Scholar
- 2001. Studying status: An integrated framework. American Sociological Review, 66: 96–124. Google Scholar
- 1994. Enhancing effectiveness: An investigation of advantages and disadvantages of value-based intra group conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 5: 223–238. Google Scholar
- 1995. A multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflict. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40: 256–282. Google Scholar
- 1997. To agree or not to agree: The effects of value congruence, individual demographic dissimilarity, and conflict on workgroup outcomes. International Journal of Conflict Management, 8: 287–305. Google Scholar
- 2001. The dynamic nature of conflict: A longitudinal study of intragroup conflict and group performance. Academy of Management Journal, 44: 238–251.Link , Google Scholar
- 1999. Why differences make a difference: A field study of diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44: 741–763. Google Scholar
- 2006. Sure everyone can be replaced… but at what cost? Turnover as a predictor of unit-level performance. Academy of Management Journal, 49: 133–144. Google Scholar
- 1990. Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33: 692–724.Link , Google Scholar
- 2009. Conflict and cooperation in diverse workgroups. Journal of Social Issues, 65: 261–285. Google Scholar
- 1997. The theory of structural ritualization. Advances in Group Processes, 14: 257–279. Google Scholar
- 1993. Assessing diversity climate: A field study of reactions to employer efforts to promote diversity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14: 61–81. Google Scholar
- 1996. Toward a theory of communicative interactions in culturally diverse workgroups. Academy of Management Review, 21: 463–491.Abstract , Google Scholar
- 1998. Demographic diversity and faultlines: The compositional dynamics of organizational groups. Academy of Management Review, 23: 325–340.Link , Google Scholar
- 1967. The effect of performance on job satisfaction. Industrial Relations, 7: 20–28. Google Scholar
- 1994. An alternative approach: The unfolding model of employee turnover. Academy of Management Review, 19: 51–89.Abstract , Google Scholar
- 2011. Perceiving expatriate coworkers as foreigners encourages aid: Social categorization and procedural justice together improve intergroup cooperation and dual identity. Psychological Science, 22: 110–117. Google Scholar
- 2001. Maximizing cross-functional new product teams' innovativeness and constraint adherence: A conflict communications perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 44: 7779–7793. Google Scholar
- 2002. A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7: 83–104. Google Scholar
- 2005. What differences make a difference? The promise and reality of diverse teams in organizations. Psychology in the Public Interest, 6(2): 31–55. Google Scholar
- 2007. The precursors and products of fair climates: The effects of leader personality and self versus other's justice perceptions. Personnel Psychology, 60: 929–963. Google Scholar
- 2007. Racial differences in employee retention: Are diversity climate perceptions the key? Personnel Psychology, 60: 35–62. Google Scholar
- 1996. Searching for common threads: Understanding the multiple effects of diversity in organizational groups. Academy of Management Review, 21: 402–433.Link , Google Scholar
- 2004. Surface- and deep-level diversity in workgroups: Examining the moderating effects of team orientation and team process on relationship conflict. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25: 1015–1039. Google Scholar
- 1998. A tool to expand organizational understanding of workforce diversity: Exploring a measure of inclusion-exclusion. Administration in Social Work, 22(1): 47–63. Google Scholar
- 1998. Organizational and personal dimensions of Diversity Climate: Ethnic and gender differences in employee diversity perceptions. Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences, 34: 82–104. Google Scholar
- 2000. Organizational silence: A barrier to change and development in a pluralistic world. Academy of Management Review, 25: 706–725.Link , Google Scholar
- 1993. Justice as a mediator of the relationship between methods of monitoring and organizational citizenship behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 36: 527–556.Link , Google Scholar
- 1994. Stereotyping and social reality. Oxford, UK & Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Google Scholar
- 1992. The relationship between satisfaction, attitudes, and performance: An organizational level analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77: 963–974. Google Scholar
- 2008. Unlocking the effects of gender faultlines on team creativity: Is activation the key? Journal of Applied Psychology, 93: 225–234. Google Scholar
- 2000. Assessing and attacking workplace incivility. Organizational Dynamics, 29(2): 123–137. Google Scholar
- 1996. Demographic diversity, conflict, and work group outcomes: An intervening process theory. Organization Science, 7: 615–631. Google Scholar
- 1999. Exploring the black box: An analysis of work group diversity, conflict, and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44: 1–28. Google Scholar
- 1990. Dimensions of conflict frame: Disputant interpretations of conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75: 117–126. Google Scholar
- 2008. Bias against women in science: It's still there, and it's got to go. The NIH Catalyst, March-April. http://www.nih.gov/catalyst/2008/08.03.01/page1.html. Google Scholar
- 2002. Capitalizing on diversity: Interpersonal congruence in small work groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47: 296–324. Google Scholar
- 2007. Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42: 185–227. Google Scholar
- 2008. Disclosure disconnects: Antecedents and consequences of disclosing invisible stigmas across life domains. Academy of Management Review, 33: 194–215.Link , Google Scholar
- 1979. Managing organizational conflict: A model for diagnosis and intervention. Psychological Reports, 44: 1323–1344. Google Scholar
- 2009. Opening up or shutting down? The effects of multiple identities on problem solving. Harvard Business School working paper series no. 10-041. Boston. Google Scholar
- 2002. Identity salience: A moderator of the relationship between group gender composition and work group conflict. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23: 749–766. Google Scholar
- 1991. The social construction of status value: Gender and other nominal characteristics. Social Forces, 70: 367–386. Google Scholar
- 1986. Expectations, legitimation, and dominance behavior in task groups. American Sociological Review, 51: 603–617. Google Scholar
- 2006. Consensus and the creation of status beliefs. Social Forces, 85: 431–453. Google Scholar
- 2006. Disentangling the meanings of diversity and inclusion in organizations. Group and Organization Management, 31: 212–236. Google Scholar
- 2009. Checking your identities at the door? Positive relationships between nonwork and work identities. In Roberts L. M.Dutton J. E. (Eds.), Exploring positive identities and organizations: Building a theoretical and research foundation: 125–148. New York: Routledge. Google Scholar
- 2000. Scaled and adjusted restricted tests in multi-sample analysis of moment structures. In Heijmans R. D. H.Pollock D. S. G.Satorra A. (Eds.), Innovations in multivariate statistical analysis: A Festschrift for Heinz Neudecker: 233–247. London: Kluwer Academic. Google Scholar
- 1980. Construct validity in organizational behavior. In Staw B. M.Cummings L. L. (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, vol. 2: 3–43. Greenwich, CT: JAI. Google Scholar
- 2011. Inclusion and diversity in work groups: A review and model for future research. Journal of Management, 37: 1262–1289. Google Scholar
- 1999. Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar
- 2000. Task conflict and relationship conflict in top management teams: The pivotal role of intragroup trust. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85: 102–111. Google Scholar
- 1986. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In Worchel S.Austin W. (Eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations: 7–24. Chicago: Nelson Hall. Google Scholar
-
U.S. Department of Labor Center for Faith-Based Community Initiatives . 2008. Cost-of-turnover worksheet. http://www.dol.gov/cfbci/turnover.htm.Accessed July 5 . Google Scholar -
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission . 2008. Job bias charges rise 9% in 2007, EEOC reports. http://www.eeoc.gov/press/3-5-08.html. Google Scholar - 2004. Work group diversity and group performance: An integrative model and research agenda. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89: 1008–1022. Google Scholar
- 2007. Work group diversity. In Posner M. I.Rothbard M. K. (Eds.), Annual review of psychology, vol. 58: 515–541. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews. Google Scholar
- 1999. Disaggregating the motives underlying turnover intentions: When do intentions predict turnover behavior? Human Relations, 52: 1313–1336. Google Scholar
- 1986. Can gender inequalities be reduced? American Sociological Review, 51: 47–61. Google Scholar
- 1997. Overall job satisfaction: How good are single-item measures? Journal of Applied Psychology, 82: 247–52. Google Scholar
- 2001. Impact of highly and less job-related diversity on work group cohesion and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Management, 27: 141–162. Google Scholar
- 2008. Age and gender diversity as determinants of performance and health in a public organization: The role of task complexity and group size. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93: 1301–1313. Google Scholar
- 1998. Demography and diversity in organizations: A review of 40 years of research. In Staw B. M.Cummings L. L. (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, vol. 20: 77–140. Greenwich, CT: JAI. Google Scholar
- 1994. Looking beyond numbers: The effects of gender status, job prestige, and occupational gender-typing on tokenism processes. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57: 150–159. Google Scholar
- 2000. A group-level model of safety climate: Testing the effect of group climate on microaccidents in manufacturing jobs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85: 587–596. Google Scholar
- 2002. Modifying supervisory practices to improve subunit safety: A leadership-based intervention model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 156–163. Google Scholar