One important benefit of teamwork is the exchange and integration of diverse knowledge, experience, and opinions group members bring to the table. However, demographic attributes—such as race, gender, and functional background—may create asymmetric influence patterns between group members in diverse groups because these demographic characteristics are often associated with status differences. In the current research, we examine how to attenuate this disparity in member influence in diverse groups by focusing on the role of a leader’s gazing behavior. Across two studies, we found that asymmetric influence patterns in which high-status members tend to wield greater influence in group decision-making processes were attenuated when a leader increased their visual attention toward low-status members in the group. This reduced disparity in member influence which in turn improved group information elaboration and group performance in a collective decision-making task. Theoretical and practical implications for leaders’ visual attention, diversity, group decision-making processes, and group performance are discussed.

REFERENCES

Alberts, J., Nakayama, T. K., & Martin, J. N. 2007. Human communication in society. Boston, MA: Allyn-Bacon. Google Scholar
Ambady, N., & Skowronski, J. 2008. First impressions. New York, NY: Guilford. Google Scholar
Anderson, C., & Kilduff, G. J. 2009. Why do dominant personalities attain influence in face-to-face groups? The competence-signaling effects of trait dominance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96: 491–503. Google Scholar
Antonsen, S. 2009. Safety culture and the issue of power. Safety Science, 47: 183–191. Google Scholar
Argyle, M. 2013. Bodily communication. London, England: Routledge. Google Scholar
Argyle, M., & Cook, M. 1976. Gaze and mutual gaze. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar
Argyle, M., & Ingham, R. 1972. Gaze, mutual gaze, and proximity. Semiotica, 1: 32–49. Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S. 1995. Mindblindness: An essay on autism and theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Google Scholar
Bazerman, M. H., Loewenstein, G. F., & White, S. B. 1992. Reversals of preference in allocation decisions: Judging an alternative versus choosing among alternatives. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37: 220–240. Google Scholar
Bedi, N., & McGrory, K. 2018, December 29. Johns Hopkins wrote the rules on patient safety. But its hospitals don’t always follow them. Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved from https://projects.tampabay.com/projects/2018/investigations/heartbroken/johns-hopkins-patient-safety Google Scholar
Berger, J., Rosenholtz, S. J., & Zelditch, M., Jr. 1980. Status organizing processes. Annual Review of Sociology, 6: 479–508. Google Scholar
Berger, J., & Zelditch, M., Jr. 1985. Status, rewards, and influence. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar
Birmingham, E., Bischof, W. F., & Kingstone, A. 2008. Social attention and real-world scenes: The roles of action, competition and social content. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61: 986–998. Google Scholar
Bliese, P. D. 2000. Within-group agreement, non-independence, and reliability: Implications for data aggregation and analysis. In K. J. Klein & S. W. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research and methods in organizations: Foundations, extensions and new directions: 349–381. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar
Bonaccio, S., O’Reilly, J., O’Sullivan, S. L., & Chiocchio, F. 2016. Nonverbal behavior and communication in the workplace: A review and an agenda for research. Journal of Management, 42: 1044–1074. Google Scholar
Bunderson, J. S. 2003. Recognizing and utilizing expertise in work groups: A status characteristics perspective. Administrative Science Quarterly, 48: 557–591. Google Scholar
Burgoon, J. K., Guerrero, L. K., & Manusov, V. 2011. Nonverbal signals. In M. L. KnappJ. Daly (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal communication: 239–280. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Google Scholar
Chattopadhyay, P., Finn, C., & Ashkanasy, N. 2010. Affective responses to professional dissimilarity: A matter of status. Academy of Management Journal, 53: 808–826.Link , Google Scholar
Chattopadhyay, P., George, E., Li, J., & Gupta, V. 2020. Geographical dissimilarity and team member influence: Do emotions experienced in the initial team meeting matter? Academy of Management Journal, 63: 1807–1839. Google Scholar
Chattopadhyay, P., George, E., & Ng, C. 2011. An uncertainty reduction model of relational demography. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 30: 219–251. Google Scholar
De Dreu, C. K. W. 2007. Cooperative outcome interdependence, task reflexivity, and team effectiveness: A motivated information processing perspective. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 93: 628–638. Google Scholar
Dulebohn, J., Bommer, W., Liden, R., Brouer, R., & Ferris, G. 2012. A meta-analysis of antecedents and consequences of leader-member exchange: Integrating the past with an eye toward the future. Journal of Management, 38: 1715–1759. Google Scholar
Edinger, J. A., & Patterson, M. L. 1983. Nonverbal involvement and social control. Psychological Bulletin, 93: 30–56. Google Scholar
Ellsberg, M. 2010. The power of eye contact: Your secret for success in business, love, and life. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Google Scholar
Emery, N. J. 2000. The eyes have it: The neuroethology, function and evolution of social gaze. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 24: 581–604. Google Scholar
Farh, C. I. C., Lanaj, K., & Ilies, R. 2017. Resource-based contingencies of when team-member exchange helps member performance in teams. Academy of Management Journal, 60: 1117–1137.Link , Google Scholar
Fiske, S. T. 2000. Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination at the seam between the centuries: Evolution, culture, mind, and brain. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30: 299–322. Google Scholar
Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. 1991. Social cognition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Google Scholar
Foulsham, T., Cheng, J. T., Tracy, J. L., Henrich, J., & Kingstone, A. 2010. Gaze allocation in a dynamic situation: Effects of social status and speaking. Cognition, 117: 319–331. Google Scholar
Friedman, N. 1967. The social nature of psychological research: The psychological experiment as a social interaction. New York, NY: Basic Books. Google Scholar
Frischen, A., Bayliss, A. P., & Tipper, S. P. 2007. Gaze cueing of attention: Visual attention, social cognition, and individual differences. Psychological Bulletin, 133: 694–724. Google Scholar
Garrett, T. 2004. Whither Challenger, wither Columbia: Management decision making and the knowledge analytic. American Review of Public Administration, 34: 389–402. Google Scholar
Gawande, A. 2010. The checklist manifesto: How to get things right. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books. Google Scholar
Gilson, L. L., & Shalley, C. E. 2004. A little creativity goes a long way: An examination of teams’ engagement in the creative process. Journal of Management, 30: 453–470. Google Scholar
Goffman, E. 1963. Behavior in public places. New York, NY: Free Press. Google Scholar
Gomez, C., & Rosen, B. 2001. The leader-member exchange as a link between managerial trust and employee empowerment. Group & Organization Management, 26: 53–69. Google Scholar
Hall, J. A., Bernieri, F. J., & Carney, D. R. 2005. Nonverbal behavior and interpersonal sensitivity. In J. A. HarriganR. RosenthalK. R. Scherer (Eds.), The new handbook of methods in nonverbal behavior research: 237–281. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
Hargadon, A., & Bechky, B. 2006. When collections of creatives become creative collectives: A field study of problem solving at work. Organization Science, 17: 484–500. Google Scholar
Harrison, D., & Klein, K. 2007. What’s the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 32: 1199–1228.Abstract , Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F. 2013. Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis a regression-based approach. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Google Scholar
Henderson, J. M. 2003. Human gaze control during real-world scene perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7: 498–504. Google Scholar
Hoever, I. J., van Knippenberg, D., van Ginkel, W. P., & Barkema, H. G. 2012. Fostering team creativity: Perspective taking as key to unlocking diversity’s potential. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97: 982–996. Google Scholar
Homan, A. C., Hollenbeck, J. R., Humphrey, S. E., van Knippenberg, D., Ilgen, D. R., & Van Kleef, G. A. 2008. Facing differences with an open mind: Openness to experience, salience of intra-group differences, and performance of diverse work groups. Academy of Management Journal, 51: 1204–1222.Link , Google Scholar
Homan, A. C., van Knippenberg, D., Van Kleef, G. A., & De Dreu, C. K. W. 2007. Bridging faultlines by valuing diversity: Diversity beliefs, information elaboration, and performance in diverse work groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92: 1189–1199. Google Scholar
Jehn, K. A., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. 1999. Why differences make a difference: A field study of diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44: 741–763. Google Scholar
Jones, R. E., & Cooper, J. 1971. Mediation of experimenter effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 20: 70–74. Google Scholar
Kelly, E., & Moen, P. 2007. Rethinking the clockwork of work: Why schedule control may pay off at work and home. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 9: 487–506. Google Scholar
Khalid, S., Deska, J. C., & Hugenberg, K. 2016. The eyes are the windows to the mind: Direct eye gaze triggers the ascription of others’ minds. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42: 1666–1677. Google Scholar
Kilduff, G. J., & Galinsky, A. D. 2013. From the ephemeral to the enduring: How approach-oriented mindsets lead to greater status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105: 816–831. Google Scholar
Klein, K., & Kozlowski, S. 2000. Multilevel theory, research and methods in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar
Kleinke, C. L. 1986. Gaze and eye contact: A research review. Psychological Bulletin, 1: 78–100. Google Scholar
Knapp, M., & Hall, J. 2009. Nonverbal communication in human interaction (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. Google Scholar
Koch, S., Baehne, C., Kruse, C., Zimmermann, G., & Zumbach, L. 2010. Visual dominance and visual egalitarianism: Individual and group-level influences of sex and status in group interactions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 34: 137–153. Google Scholar
Kulik, C. T. 2014. Working below and above the line: the research-practice gap in diversity management. Human Resource Management Journal, 24: 129–144. Google Scholar
Kulik, C. T., Perera, S., & Cregan, C. 2016. Engage me: The mature-age worker and stereotype threat. Academy of Management Journal, 59: 2132–2156.Link , Google Scholar
Lafferty, J. C., & Pond, A. W. 1974. Desert survival situation. Plymouth, MI: Human Synergistics. Google Scholar
Larson, J. R. 2007. Deep diversity and strong synergy: Modeling the impact of variability in members’ problem-solving strategies on group problem-solving performance. Small Group Research, 38: 413–436. Google Scholar
Lavie, N. 1995. Perceptual load as a necessary condition for selective attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21: 451–468. Google Scholar
LeBrenton, J. M., & Senter, J. L. 2008. Answers to 20 questions about interrater reliability and interrater agreement. Organizational Research Methods, 11: 815–852. Google Scholar
Lerner, J. S., & Tetlock, P. E. 1999. Accounting for the effects of accountability. Psychological Bulletin, 125: 255–275. Google Scholar
Leslie, L. M. 2017. A status-based multilevel model of ethnic diversity and work unit performance. Journal of Management, 43: 426–454. Google Scholar
Littlepage, G. E., & Mueller, A. L. 1997. Recognition of expertise in groups: Expert characteristics and behavior. Group Dynamics, 1: 324–328. Google Scholar
Littlepage, G. E., Schmidt, G. W., Whisler, E. W., & Frost, A. G. 1995. An input-process-output analysis of influence and performance in problem-solving groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69: 877–889. Google Scholar
Liuzza, M. T., Cazzato, V., Vecchione, M., Crostella, F., Caprara, G. V., & Aglioti, S. M. 2011. Follow my eyes: The gaze of politicians reflexively captures the gaze of ingroup voters. PLoS One, 6: e25117. Google Scholar
Manusov, V., & Patterson, M. L. 2006. The SAGE handbook of nonverbal communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Google Scholar
Matsumoto, D., Frank, M., & Hwang, H. 2013. Nonverbal communication: Science and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Google Scholar
Mayo, M., van Knippenberg, D., Guillén, L., & Firfiray, S. 2016. Team diversity and categorization salience: Capturing diversity-blind, intergroup-biased, and multicultural perceptions. Organizational Research Methods, 19: 433–474. Google Scholar
Medvec, V. H., Madey, S., & Gilovich, T. 1995. When less is more: Counterfactual thinking among Olympic medalists. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69: 603–610. Google Scholar
Milliken, F. J., & Martins, L. L. 1996. Searching for common threads: Understanding the multiple effects of diversity in organizational groups. Academy of Management Review, 21: 402–433.Link , Google Scholar
Nishii, L., & Mayer, D. 2009. Do inclusive leaders help to reduce turnover in diverse groups? The moderating role of leader-member exchange in the diversity to turnover relationship. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 94: 1412–1426. Google Scholar
Nederveen Pieterse, A., van Knippenberg, D., & van Dierendonck, D. 2013. Cultural diversity and team performance: The role of team member goal orientation. Academy of Management Journal, 56: 782–804.Link , Google Scholar
Ocasio, W. 2011. Attention to attention. Organization Science, 22: 1286–1296. Google Scholar
Oedzes, J. J., Van der Vegt, G. S., Rink, F. A., & Walter, F. 2018. On the origins of informal hierarchy: The interactive role of formal leadership and task complexity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 40: 311–324. Google Scholar
Ohlsen, G., van Zoest, W., & Van Vugt, M. 2013. Gender and facial dominance in gaze cuing: Emotional context matters in the eyes that we follow. PLoS One, 8: e59471. Google Scholar
Pashler, H. E. 1998. The psychology of attention. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Google Scholar
Peterson, R. S. 2001. PB Technologies. Kellogg Dispute Resolution Center Teaching Activity. Google Scholar
Phillips, K., Rothbard, N., & Dumas, T. 2009. To disclose or not to disclose? Status distance and self-disclosure in diverse environments. Academy of Management Review, 34: 710–732.Link , Google Scholar
Purvis, J. A., Dabbs, J. M., & Hopper, C. H. 1984. The “opener”: Skilled user of facial expression and speech pattern. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10: 61–66. Google Scholar
Remland, M. 1981. Developing leadership skills in nonverbal communication: A situational perspective. Journal of Business Communication, 18: 17–29. Google Scholar
Resick, C. J., Murase, T., Randall, K. R., & DeChurch, L. A. 2014. Information elaboration and team performance: Examining the psychological origins and environmental contingencies. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 124: 165–176. Google Scholar
Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. 2002. Perceived organizational support: A review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 698–714. Google Scholar
Ridgeway, C. 1982. Status in groups: The importance of motivation. American Sociological Review, 47: 76–88. Google Scholar
Ridgeway, C. 1987. Nonverbal behavior, dominance, and the basis of status in task groups. American Sociological Review, 52: 683–694. Google Scholar
Ridgeway, C. 1991. The social construction of status value: Gender and other nominal characteristics. Social Forces, 70: 367–386. Google Scholar
Ridgeway, C., & Berger, J. 1986. Expectations, legitimation, and dominance behavior in task groups. American Sociological Review, 51: 603–617. Google Scholar
Ridgeway, C., & Correll, S. 2006. Consensus and the creation of status beliefs. Social Forces, 85: 431–454. Google Scholar
Ridgeway, C., & Walker, H. 1995. Status structures. In K. CookG. FineJ. House (Eds.), Sociological perspectives on social psychology: 281–310. New York, NY: Allyn and Bacon. Google Scholar
Sauer, S. J. 2011. Taking the reins: The effects of new leader status and leadership style on team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96: 574–587. Google Scholar
Schwartz, H. S. 1987. On the psychodynamics of organizational disaster: The case of the space shuttle Challenger. Columbia Journal of World Business, 22: 59–67. Google Scholar
Shellenbarger, S. 2013, May 29. Is the boss looking at you? You’d better hope so. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from https://blogs.wsj.com/atwork/2013/05/29/is-the-boss-looking-at-you-youd-better-hope-so/. Google Scholar
Shepherd, V. 2010. Following gaze: Gaze-following behavior as a window into social cognition. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 4: 1–13. Google Scholar
Sooriya, P. 2017. Nonverbal communication. Solapur, India: Laxmi Book Publication. Google Scholar
Staats, S., Ross, T., Irmscher, K., & Rada, K. 2002. Feeling stares: Places, persons, and pets. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32: 758–766. Google Scholar
Stasser, G., & Stewart, D. 1992. Discovery of hidden profiles by decision-making groups: Solving a problem versus making a judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63: 426–434. Google Scholar
Stasser, G., & Titus, W. 1985. Pooling of unshared information in group decision making: Biased information sampling during discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48: 1467–1478. Google Scholar
Stroebe, K., Nijstad, B. A., & Hemelrijk, C. K. 2017. Female dominance in human groups: Effects of sex ratio and conflict level. Social Psychological & Personality Science, 8: 209–218. Google Scholar
Tost, L. P., Gino, F., & Larrick, R. 2013. When power makes others speechless: The negative impact of leader power on team performance. Academy of Management Journal, 56: 1465–1486.Link , Google Scholar
Trawalter, S., Todd, A., Baird, A., & Richeson, J. 2008. Attending to threat: Race-based patterns of selective attention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44: 1322–1327. Google Scholar
van Dick, R., van Knippenberg, D., Hägele, S., Guillaume, Y. R. F., & Brodbeck, F. C. 2008. Group diversity and group identification: The moderating role of diversity beliefs. Human Relations, 61: 1463–1492. Google Scholar
van Ginkel, W. P., & van Knippenberg, D. 2008. Group information elaboration and group decision making: The role of shared task representations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 105: 82–97. Google Scholar
van Knippenberg, D., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Homan, A. C. 2004. Work group diversity and group performance: An integrative model and research agenda. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89: 1008–1022. Google Scholar
van Knippenberg, D., & Schippers, M. 2007. Work group diversity. Annual Review of Psychology, 58: 515–541. Google Scholar
van Veelen, R., & Ufkes, E. 2019. Teaming up or down? A multisource study on the role of team identification and learning in the team diversity–performance link. Group & Organization Management, 44: 38–71. Google Scholar
Van Vugt, M., Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R. B. 2008. Leadership, followership, and evolution: Some lessons from the past. American Psychologist, 63: 182–196. Google Scholar
Weber, J. M., & Murnighan, J. K. 2008. Suckers or saviors? Consistent contributors in social dilemmas. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95: 1340–1353. Google Scholar
Wesselmann, E. D., Cardoso, F. D., Slater, S., & Williams, K. D. 2012. To be looked at as though air: Civil attention matters. Psychological Science, 23: 166–168. Google Scholar
Wirth, J. H., Sacco, D. F., Hugenberg, K., & Williams, K. D. 2010. Eye gaze as relational evaluation: Averted eye gaze leads to feelings of ostracism and relational devaluation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36: 869–882. Google Scholar
Young, S. G., Slepian, M. L., Wilson, J. P., & Hugenberg, K. 2014. Averted eye-gaze disrupts configural face encoding. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 53: 94–99. Google Scholar
Zaccaro, S. J., Rittman, A. L., & Marks, M. A. 2001. Team leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 12: 451–483. Google Scholar
Ziv, G. 2016. Gaze behavior and visual attention: A review of eye tracking studies in aviation. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 26: 75–104. Google Scholar
Zou, L. X., & Cheryan, S. 2017. Two axes of subordination: A new model of racial position. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112: 696–717. Google Scholar
Zuberbühler, K. 2008. Gaze following. Current Biology, 18: 453–455. Google Scholar

Vol. 64, No. 6

Permissions

Metrics

in the past 12 months

History

Published online 21 December 2021

Published in print 1 December 2021

Information

Keywords

Download PDF