Published Online:https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2014.0424

Past research widely demonstrates the importance of employee emotional experiences and processes for individual and small group outcomes. However, theory is lacking on how organizations systematically differ in their affective processes and how these impact important organizational outcomes. To address this problem, we use organizational climate theory to advance the construct of affect climate and provide a conceptual foundation for understanding its processes and effects in organizations. We propose that through various sources of climate, such as company practices, leaders, and routines, organizations can create environments that promote, among employees, (1) certain types of affective experiences or expressions, (2) specific uses of desirable affect for functional goals, and (3) particular ways to manage undesirable emotions and moods. We suggest that these three interrelated processes work together to form one of six unique organizational affect climate types. Further, we develop theory to explain how each affect climate type differentially impacts four strategic outcomes of organizational units: relationship, productivity, creativity, and reliability performance. Ultimately, our theory positions affect climate as another key performance differentiator for organizations, and it provides knowledge of the specific affect climate types that enable or inhibit distinct strategic priorities.

REFERENCES

  • Aaker J., Poses J., Schifrin D. 2013. How to cultivate happiness in companies: Five caselets. Stanford Graduate School of Business Case No. M346, Stanford University, Stanford, CA. Google Scholar
  • Adler P. S., Borys B. 1996. Two types of bureaucracy: Enabling and coercive. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41: 61–89. Google Scholar
  • Allen J. A., Diefendorff J. M., Ma Y. 2013. Differences in emotional labor across cultures: A comparison of Chinese and U.S. service workers. Journal of Business and Psychology, 29(1): 21–35. Google Scholar
  • Amabile T. M., Barsade S. G., Mueller J. S., Staw B. M. 2005. Affect and creativity at work. Administrative Science Quarterly, 50: 367–403. Google Scholar
  • Amabile T. M., Conti R., Coon H., Lazenby J., Herron M. 1996. Assessing the work environment for creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 39: 1154–1184.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Argyris C. 1994. Good communication that blocks learning. Harvard Business Review, 72(4): 77–85. Google Scholar
  • Ashforth B. E., Humphrey R. H. 1993. Emotional labor in service roles: The influence of identity. Academy of Management Review, 18: 88–115.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Ashforth B. E., Humphrey R. H. 1995. Emotion in the workplace: A reappraisal. Human Relations, 48: 97–125. Google Scholar
  • Ashkanasy N. M. 2003. Emotions in organizations: A multi-level perspective. Research in Multi-Level Issues, 2: 9–54. Google Scholar
  • Ashkanasy N. M., Daus C. S. 2002. Emotion in the workplace: The new challenge for managers. Academy of Management Executive, 16(1): 76–86.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Ashkanasy N. M., Härtel C. E. J. 2014. Positive and negative affective climate and culture: The good, the bad, and the ugly. In Schneider B.Barbera K. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of organizational culture and climate: 136–152. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
  • Ashkanasy N. M., Humphrey R. H. 2011. Current emotion research in organizational behavior. Emotion Review, 3(2): 214–224. Google Scholar
  • Ashkanasy N. M., Nicholson G. J. 2003. Climate of fear in organisational settings: Construct definition, measurement and a test of theory. Australian Journal of Psychology, 55(1): 24–29. Google Scholar
  • Baas M., De Dreu C. K. W., Nijstad B. A. 2008. A meta-analysis of 25 years of mood-creativity research: Hedonic tone, activation, or regulatory focus? Psychological Bulletin, 134: 779–806. Google Scholar
  • Barger P. B., Grandey A. A. 2006. Service with a smile and encounter satisfaction: Emotional contagion and appraisal mechanisms. Academy of Management Journal, 49: 1229–1238.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Barker J. R. 1993. Tightening the iron cage: Concertive control in self-managing teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38: 408–437. Google Scholar
  • Baron R. A. 1984. Reducing organizational conflict: An incompatible response approach. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69: 272–279. Google Scholar
  • Baron R. A. 1988. Negative effects of destructive criticism: impact on conflict, self-efficacy, and task performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73: 199–207. Google Scholar
  • Barrett F. J. 1996. The organizational construction of hegemonic masculinity: The case of the US Navy. Gender, Work & Organization, 3(3): 129–142. Google Scholar
  • Barrett L. F., Mesquita B., Ochsner K. N., Gross J. J. 2007. The experience of emotion. Annual Review of Psychology, 58: 373–403. Google Scholar
  • Barrett L. F., Russell J. A. 1998. Independence and bipolarity in the structure of current affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74: 967–984. Google Scholar
  • Barrick M. R., Thurgood G. R., Smith T. A., Courtright S. H. 2015. Collective organizational engagement: Linking motivational antecedents, strategic implementation, and firm performance. Academy of Management Journal, 58: 111–135.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Barsade S. G. 2002. The ripple effect: Emotional contagion and its influence on group behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47: 644–675. Google Scholar
  • Barsade S. G., Gibson D. E. 2007. Why does affect matter in organizations? Academy of Management Perspectives, 21(1): 36–59.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Barsade S. G., Knight A. P. 2015. Group affect. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2: 21–46. Google Scholar
  • Barsade S. G., O’Neill O. A. 2014. What’s love got to do with it?: The influence of a culture of companionate love in the long-term care setting. Administrative Science Quarterly, 59: 551–598. Google Scholar
  • Bar-Tal D., Halperin E., De Rivera J. 2007. Collective emotions in conflict situations: Societal implications. Journal of Social Issues, 63: 441–460. Google Scholar
  • Beal D. J., Cohen R. R., Burke M. J., McLendon C. L. 2003. Cohesion and performance in groups: A meta-analytic clarification of construct relations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88: 989–1004. Google Scholar
  • Birdi K., Clegg C., Patterson M., Robinson A., Stride C. B., Wall T. D., Wood S. J. 2008. The impact of human resource and operational management practices on company productivity: A longitudinal study. Personnel Psychology, 61: 467–501. Google Scholar
  • Bledow R., Rosing K., Frese M. 2013. A dynamic perspective on affect and creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 56: 432–450.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Bowen D. E., Ostroff C. 2004. Understanding HRM–firm performance linkages: The role of the “strength” of the HRM system. Academy of Management Review, 29: 203–221.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Brotheridge C. M., Lee R. T. 2002. Testing a conservation of resources model of the dynamics of emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7: 57–67. Google Scholar
  • Brotheridge C. M., Lee R. T. 2003. Development and validation of the Emotional Labour Scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76: 365–379. Google Scholar
  • Bryant M., Cox J. W. 2006. The expression of suppression: Loss and emotional labour in narratives of organisational change. Journal of Management and Organization, 12: 116–130. Google Scholar
  • Butler E. A., Egloff B., Wilhelm F. H., Smith N. C., Erickson E. A., Gross J. J. 2003. The social consequences of expressive suppression. Emotion, 3: 48–67. Google Scholar
  • Butler E. A., Lee T. L., Gross J. J. 2007. Emotion regulation and culture: Are the social consequences of emotion suppression culture-specific? Emotion, 7: 30–48. Google Scholar
  • Cable D. M., Gino F., Staats B. R. 2013. Breaking them in or eliciting their best? Reframing socialization around newcomers’ authentic self-expression. Administrative Science Quarterly, 58: 1–36. Google Scholar
  • Cacioppo J. T., Gardner W. L., Berntson G. G. 1999. The affect system has parallel and integrative processing components: Form follows function. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76: 839–855. Google Scholar
  • Callahan J. L. 2000. Emotion management and organizational functions: A case study of patterns in a not-for-profit organization. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11: 245–267. Google Scholar
  • Cameron K. S. 2008. Positive leadership: Strategies for extraordinary performance. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Google Scholar
  • Chafkin M. 2009. Get happy. Inc., 31(4): 66–73. Google Scholar
  • Christian M. S., Garza A. S., Slaughter J. E. 2011. Work engagement: A quantitative review and test of its relations with task and contextual performance. Personnel Psychology, 64: 89–136. Google Scholar
  • Côté S. 2005. A social interaction model of the effects of emotion regulation on work strain. Academy of Management Review, 30: 509–530.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Dane E., George J. M. 2014. Unpacking affective forecasting and its ties to project work in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 39: 181–201.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Deci E. L., Ryan R. M. 2000. The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11: 227–268. Google Scholar
  • Dekas K. H., Bauer T. N., Welle B., Kurkoski J., Sullivan S. 2013. Organizational citizenship behavior, version 2.0: A review and qualitative investigation of OCBs for knowledge workers at Google and beyond. Academy of Management Perspectives, 27(3): 219–237.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • DeLisi P. S. 1998. A modern-day tragedy: The Digital Equipment story. Journal of Management Inquiry, 7: 118–130. Google Scholar
  • de Rivera J. H. 1992. Emotional climate: Social structure and emotional dynamics. In Strongman K. T. (Ed.), International review of studies on emotion: 197–218. New York: Wiley. Google Scholar
  • DeShon R. P., Gillespie J. Z. 2005. A motivated action theory account of goal orientation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90: 1096–1127. Google Scholar
  • Diefendorff J. M., Erickson R. J., Grandey A. A., Dahling J. J. 2011. Emotional display rules as work unit norms: A multilevel analysis of emotional labor among nurses. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16: 170–186. Google Scholar
  • Doty D. H., Glick W. H., Huber G. P. 1993. Fit, equifinality, and organizational effectiveness: A test of two configurational theories. Academy of Management Journal, 36: 1196–1250.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Edmondson A. 1999. Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44: 350–383. Google Scholar
  • Edwards J. A., Weary G. 1993. Depression and the impression-formation continuum: Piecemeal processing despite the availability of category information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64: 636–645. Google Scholar
  • Eid M., Diener E. 2001. Norms for experiencing emotions in different cultures: Inter- and intranational differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81: 869–885. Google Scholar
  • Elfenbein H. A. 2007. Emotion in organizations: A review and theoretical integration. Academy of Management Annals, 1: 315–386.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Elsbach K. D., Barr P. S. 1999. The effects of mood on individuals’ use of structured decision protocols. Organization Science, 10: 181–198. Google Scholar
  • Ely R. J., Meyerson D. E. 2006. Unmasking manly men: The organizational reconstruction of men’s identity. Academy of Management Proceedings: J1–J6. Google Scholar
  • Ely R. J., Meyerson D. E. 2008. Unmasking manly men. Harvard Business Review, 86(7–8): 20. Google Scholar
  • Ely R. J., Thomas D. A. 2001. Cultural diversity at work: The effects of diversity perspectives on work group processes and outcomes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46: 229–273. Google Scholar
  • Fong C. T. 2006. The effects of emotional ambivalence on creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 49: 1016–1030.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Frijda N. H. 1987. Emotion, cognitive structure, and action tendency. Cognition and Emotion, 1(2): 115–143. Google Scholar
  • Gamero N., González-Romá V., Peiró J. M. 2008. The influence of intra-team conflict on work teams’ affective climate: A longitudinal study. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81: 47–69. Google Scholar
  • Gardner W. L., Fischer D., Hunt J. G. 2009. Emotional labor and leadership: A threat to authenticity? Leadership Quarterly, 20: 466–482. Google Scholar
  • Geddes D., Callister R. R. 2007. Crossing the line(s): A dual thereshold model of anger in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 32: 721–746.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Gelfand M. J., Leslie L. M., Keller K. M. 2008. On the etiology of conflict cultures. Research in Organizational Behavior, 28: 137–166. Google Scholar
  • Gelfand M. J., Nishii L. H., Raver J. L. 2006. On the nature and importance of cultural tightness-looseness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 1225–1244. Google Scholar
  • George J. M. 1990. Personality, affect, and behavior in groups. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75: 107–116. Google Scholar
  • George J. M. 2011. Dual tuning: A minimum condition for understanding affect in organizations? Organizational Psychology Review, 1(2): 147–164. Google Scholar
  • George J. M., Zhou J. 2007. Dual tuning in a supportive context: Joint contributions of positive mood, negative mood, and supervisory behaviors to employee creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 50: 605–622.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Gersick C. J. G., Hackman J. R. 1990. Habitual routines in task-performing groups. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 47: 65–97. Google Scholar
  • Gilmore J. H., Pine B. J. 2007. Authenticity: What consumers really want. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Google Scholar
  • Grandey A. A. 2003. When “the show must go on”: Surface acting and deep acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery. Academy of Management Journal, 46: 86–96.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Grandey A. A., Fisk G. M., Mattila A. S., Jansen K. J., Sideman L. A. 2005. Is “service with a smile” enough? Authenticity of positive displays during service encounters. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 96: 38–55. Google Scholar
  • Grandey A. A., Foo S. C., Groth M., Goodwin R. E. 2012. Free to be you and me: A climate of authenticity alleviates burnout from emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17: 1–14. Google Scholar
  • Grandey A. A., Gabriel A. S. 2015. Emotional labor at a crossroads: Where do we go from here? Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2: 323–349. Google Scholar
  • Grandey A., Rafaeli A., Ravid S., Wirtz J., Steiner D. D. 2010. Emotion display rules at work in the global service economy: The special case of the customer. Journal of Service Management, 21: 388–412. Google Scholar
  • Grant A. M. 2013. Rocking the boat but keeping it steady: The role of emotion regulation in employee voice. Academy of Management Journal, 56: 1703–1723.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Greathouse J. 2014. From call center agent to Zappos’ life coach: This woman is amazing. Forbes, February 4: http://www.forbes.com/sites/johngreathouse/2014/02/04/from-call-center-agent-to-zappos-executive-this-woman-will-blow-your-my-mind/#323f3cb4c1a4. Google Scholar
  • Groth M., Hennig-Thurau T., Walsh G. 2009. Customer reactions to emotional labor: The roles of employee acting strategies and customer detection accuracy. Academy of Management Journal, 52: 958–974.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Hargadon A. B. 2002. Brokering knowledge: Linking learning and innovation. Research in Organizational Behavior, 24: 41–85. Google Scholar
  • Harker L., Keltner D. 2001. Expressions of positive emotion in women’s college yearbook pictures and their relationship to personality and life outcomes across adulthood. Academy of Management Journal, 80: 112–124. Google Scholar
  • Härtel C. E. J., Ashkanasy N. M. 2011. Healthy human cultures as positive work environments. In Ashkanasy N. M.Wilderom C. P. M.Peterson M. F. (Eds.), The handbook of organizational culture and climate (2nd ed.): 85–100. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar
  • Harter J. K., Schmidt F. L., Hayes T. L. 2002. Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 268–279. Google Scholar
  • Hartnell C. A., Ou A. Y., Kinicki A. 2011. Organizational culture and organizational effectiveness: A meta-analytic investigation of the competing values framework’s theoretical suppositions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96: 677–694. Google Scholar
  • Harvey S. 2014. Creative synthesis: Exploring the process of extraordinary group creativity. Academy of Management Review, 39: 324–343.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Hauser A., Takeda A. 2012. The most sleep-friendly companies in America. Everyday Health: http://www.everydayhealth.com/sleep-pictures/the-most-sleep-friendly-companies-in-america.aspx#05. Google Scholar
  • Hennessey B. A., Amabile T. M. 2010. Creativity. Annual Review of Psychology, 61: 569–598. Google Scholar
  • Heskett J. L., Jones T. O., Loveman G. W., Sasser W. E., Schlesinger L. A. 2008. Putting the service-profit chain to work. Harvard Business Review, 86(7–8): 118–129. Google Scholar
  • Higgins E. T. 1997. Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52: 1280–1300. Google Scholar
  • Higgins M. C., Kram K. E. 2001. Reconceptualizing mentoring at work: A development network perspective. Academy of Management Review, 26: 264–288.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Hochschild A. R. 1979. Emotion work, feeling rules, and social structure. American Journal of Sociology, 85: 551–575. Google Scholar
  • Hong Y., Liao H., Hu J., Jiang K. 2013. Missing link in the service profit chain: A meta-analytic review of the antecedents, consequences, and moderators of service climate. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98: 237–267. Google Scholar
  • Hülsheger U. R., Schewe A. F. 2011. On the costs and benefits of emotional labor: A meta-analysis of three decades of research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16: 361–389. Google Scholar
  • Humphrey R. H. 2008. The right way to lead with emotional labor. In Humphrey R. H. (Ed.), Affect and emotion: New directions in management theory and research: 1–17. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Google Scholar
  • Humphrey R. H., Pollack J. M., Hawver T. 2008. Leading with emotional labor. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23: 151–168. Google Scholar
  • Huy Q. N. 2002. Emotional balancing of organizational continuity and radical change: The contribution of middle managers. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47: 31–69. Google Scholar
  • Jackall R. 1988. Moral mazes: The world of corporate managers. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
  • Jiang K., Lepak D. P., Hu J., Baer J. C. 2012. How does human resource management influence organizational outcomes? A meta-analytic investigation of mediating mechanisms. Academy of Management Journal, 55: 1264–1294.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Kahn W. A. 1990. Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33: 692–724.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Kantor J., Streitfeld D. 2015. Inside Amazon: Wrestling big ideas in a bruising workplace. New York Times, August 15: http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/16/technology/inside-amazon-wrestling-big-ideas-in-a-bruising-workplace.html?_r=0. Google Scholar
  • Kegan R., Lahey L., Fleming A., Miller M. 2014. Making business personal. Harvard Business Review, 92(4): 44–52. Google Scholar
  • Kelly C. 2012. O. K., Google, Take a deep breath. New York Times, April 28: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/29/technology/google-course-asks-employees-to-take-a-deep-breath.html?pagewanted=all. Google Scholar
  • Knight A. P., Eisenkraft N. 2015. Positive is usually good, negative is not always bad: The effects of group affect on social integration and task performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100: 1214–1227. Google Scholar
  • Knight A. P., Menges J. I. 2015. Industry context and the nature and effects of emotional norms in organizations. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Vancouver, BC. Google Scholar
  • Kopelman S., Rosette A. S., Thompson L. 2006. The three faces of Eve: Strategic displays of positive, negative, and neutral emotions in negotiations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 99: 81–101. Google Scholar
  • Kramer R. M. 2001. Organizational paranoia: Origins and dynamics. Research in Organizational Behavior, 23: 1–42. Google Scholar
  • Krannitz M. A., Grandey A. A., Liu S., Almeida D. A. 2015. Workplace surface acting and marital partner discontent: Anxiety and exhaustion spillover mechanisms. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 20: 314–325. Google Scholar
  • Lanaj K., Chang C.-H., Johnson R. E. 2012. Regulatory focus and work-related outcomes: A review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138: 998–1034. Google Scholar
  • Lawler E. J., Thye S. R., Yoon J. 2000. Emotion and group cohesion in productive exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 106: 615–657. Google Scholar
  • Lazarus R. S. 1991. Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
  • Leidner R. 1991. Serving hamburgers and selling insurance: Gender, work, and identity in interactive service jobs. Gender & Society, 5(2): 154–177. Google Scholar
  • Lingo E. L., O’Mahony S. 2010. Nexus work: Brokerage on creative projects. Administrative Science Quarterly, 55: 47–81. Google Scholar
  • Lyubomirsky S., King L., Diener E. 2005. The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131: 803–855. Google Scholar
  • Martin J., Knopoff K., Beckman C. 1998. An alternative to bureaucratic impersonality and emotional labor: Bounded emotionality at The Body Shop. Administrative Science Quarterly, 43: 429–469. Google Scholar
  • Martin J., Meyerson D. E. 1998. Women and power: Conformity, resistance, and disorganized coaction. In Kramer R. M.Neale M. A. (Eds.), Power and influence in organizations: 311–348. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar
  • Martin L. L., Ward D. W., Achee J. W., Wyer R. S. 1993. Mood as input: People have to interpret the motivational implications of their moods. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64: 317–326. Google Scholar
  • Mathieu J. E., Schulze W. 2006. The influence of team knowledge and formal plans on episodic team process-performance relationships. Academy of Management Journal, 49: 605–619.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Mayer J. D., Gaschke Y. N., Braverman D. L., Evans T. W. 1992. Mood-congruent judgment is a general effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63: 119–132. Google Scholar
  • Melwani S., Barsade S. G. 2011. Held in contempt: The psychological, interpersonal, and performance consequences of contempt in a work context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101: 503–520. Google Scholar
  • Menges J. I., Kilduff M. 2015. Group emotions: Cutting the Gordian knots concerning terms, levels-of-analysis, and processes. Academy of Management Annals, 9: 845–928.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Meyer A. D., Tsui A. S., Hinings C. R. 1993. Configurational approaches to organizational analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 36: 1175–1195.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Meyerson D. E. 1994. Interpretations of stress in institutions: The cultural production of ambiguity and burnout. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39: 628–653. Google Scholar
  • Mills P. K., Ungson G. R. 2003. Reassessing the limits of structural empowerment: Organizational constitution and trust as controls. Academy of Management Review, 28: 143–153.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Mischel W. 1973. Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality. Psychological Review, 80: 252–283. Google Scholar
  • Morris J. A., Feldman D. C. 1996. The dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of emotional labor. Academy of Management Review, 21: 986–1010.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Mumby D. K., Putnam L. L. 1992. The politics of emotion: A feminist reading of bounded rationality. Academy of Management Review, 17: 465–486.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Niedenthal P. M., Brauer M. 2012. Social functionality of human emotion. Annual Review of Psychology, 63: 259–285. Google Scholar
  • Nishii L. H. 2013. The benefits of climate for inclusion for gender-diverse groups. Academy of Management Journal, 56: 1754–1774.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Ostroff C. 1993. The effects of climate and personal influences on individual behavior and attitudes in organizations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 56: 56–90. Google Scholar
  • Ostroff C., Kinicki A. J., Muhammad R. S. 2013. Organizational culture and climate. In Weiner I. B.Schmitt N. W.Highhouse S. (Eds.), Handbook of psychology. Volume 12: Industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed.): 643–676. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Google Scholar
  • Ostroff C., Kinicki A. J., Tamkins M. M. 2003. Organizational culture and climate. In Borman W. C.Ilgen D. R.Klimoski R. (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology: 565–593. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Google Scholar
  • Ozcelik H. 2013. An empirical analysis of surface acting in intra-organizational relationships. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34: 291–309. Google Scholar
  • Parker J. F. 2008. Do the right thing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wharton School Publishing. Google Scholar
  • Parker J. N., Hackett E. J. 2012. Hot spots and hot moments in scientific collaborations and social movements. American Sociological Review, 77: 21–44. Google Scholar
  • Patterson M. G., West M. A., Shackleton V. J., Dawson J. F., Lawthom R., Maitlis S., Robinson D. L., Wallace A. M. 2005. Validating the organizational climate measure: Links to managerial practices, productivity, and innovation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26: 379–408. Google Scholar
  • Perlow L. A. 2003. When you say yes but mean no: How silencing conflict wrecks relationships and companies. New York: Crown Business. Google Scholar
  • Pescosolido A. T. 2002. Emergent leaders as managers of group emotion. Leadership Quarterly, 13: 583–599. Google Scholar
  • Ployhart R. E., Moliterno T. P. 2011. Emergence of the human capital resource: A multilevel model. Academy of Management Review, 36: 127–150.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Polzer J. T., Gardner H. K. 2013. Bridgewater Associates. Harvard Business School Case 413-702, Harvard University, Boston. Google Scholar
  • Pugh S. D. 2001. Service with a smile: Emotional contagion in the service encounter. Academy of Management Journal, 44: 1018–1027.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Rafaeli A., Sutton R. I. 1987. Expression of emotion as part of the work role. Academy of Management Review, 12: 23–37.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Rees L. 2015. Emotion authenticity in work groups: Group size, climate of authenticity, and psychological safety. Paper presented at the annual conference of the International Association for Conflict Management, Clearwater Beach, FL. Google Scholar
  • Russell J. A. 2003. Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychological Review, 110: 145–172. Google Scholar
  • Russell J. A., Barrett L. F. 1999. Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76: 805–819. Google Scholar
  • Schneider B., Ehrhart M. G., Macey W. H. 2011. Organizational climate research: Achievements and the road ahead. In Ashkanasy N. M.Wilderom C. P. M.Peterson M. F. (Eds.), The handbook of organizational culture and climate (2nd ed.): 29–49. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar
  • Schneider B., Ehrhart M. G., Macey W. H. 2013. Organizational climate and culture. Annual Review of Psychology, 64: 361–388. Google Scholar
  • Schneider B., Ehrhart M., Mayer D. M., Saltz J. L., Niles-Jolly K. 2005. Understanding organization-customer links in service settings. Academy of Management Journal, 48: 1017–1032.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Schneider B., Wheeler J. K., Cox J. F. 1992. A passion for service: Using content analysis to explicate service climate themes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77: 705–716. Google Scholar
  • Schulte M., Ostroff C., Shmulyian S., Kinicki A. 2009. Organizational climate configurations: Relationships to collective attitudes, customer satisfaction, and financial performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94: 618–634. Google Scholar
  • Scott B. A., Barnes C. M. 2011. A multilevel field investigation of emotional labor, affect, work withdrawal, and gender. Academy of Management Journal, 54: 116–136.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Seo M., Barrett L. F. 2007. Being emotional during decision making, good or bad? An empirical investigation. Academy of Management Journal, 50: 923–940.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Seo M., Barrett L. F., Bartunek J. M. 2004. The role of affective experience in work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 29: 423–439.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Seo M., Ilies R. 2009. The role of self-efficacy, goal, and affect in dynamic motivational self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109: 120–133. Google Scholar
  • Sinclair R. C. 1988. Mood, categorization breadth, and performance appraisal: The effects of order of information acquisition and affective state on halo, accuracy, information retrieval, and evaluations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 42: 22–46. Google Scholar
  • Smith A. C., Kleinman S. 1989. Managing emotions in medical school: Students’ contacts with the living and the dead. Social Psychology Quarterly, 52: 56–69. Google Scholar
  • Spencer B. A. 1994. Models of organization and total quality management: A comparison and critical evaluation. Academy of Management Review, 19: 446–472.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Staw B. M., Sandelands L. E., Dutton J. E. 1981. Threat-rigidity effects in organizational behavior: A multilevel analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26: 501–524. Google Scholar
  • Staw B. M., Sutton R. I., Pelled L. H. 1994. Employee positive emotion and favorable outcomes at the workplace. Organization Science, 5: 51–71. Google Scholar
  • Stewart J. B. 2013. Looking for a lesson in Google’s perks. New York Times, March 15: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/16/business/at-google-a-place-to-work-and-play.html. Google Scholar
  • Sutton R. I. 1991. Maintaining norms about expressed emotions: The case of bill collectors. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36: 245–268. Google Scholar
  • Sutton R. I., Rafaeli A. 1988. Untangling the relationship between displayed emotions and organizational sales: The case of convenience stores. Academy of Management Journal, 31: 461–487.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Tan H. H., Foo M. D., Kwek M. H. 2004. The effects of customer personality traits on the display of positive emotions. Academy of Management Journal, 47: 287–296.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Taylor S. E. 1991. Asymmetrical effects of positive and negative events: The mobilization-minimization hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 110: 67–85. Google Scholar
  • Toegel G., Kilduff M., Anand N. 2013. Emotion helping by managers: An emergent understanding of discrepant role expectations and outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 56: 334–357.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Trougakos J. P., Jackson C. L., Beal D. J. 2011. Service without a smile: Comparing the consequences of neutral and positive display rules. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96: 350–362. Google Scholar
  • Trougakos J. P., Zweig D., Tangirala S. 2010. Multilevel within-person examination of the relationship between daily positive affective experiences and daily knowledge sharing behaviors. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Montreal. Google Scholar
  • Tsui A. S., Pearce J. L., Porter L. W., Tripoli A. M. 1997. Alternative approaches to the employee-organization relationship: Does investment in employees pay off? Academy of Management Journal, 40: 1089–1121.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Vacharkulksemsuk T., Sekerka L. E., Fredrickson B. L. 2011. Establishing a positive emotional climate to create 21st-century organizational change. In Ashkanasy N. M.Wilderom C. P. M.Peterson M. F. (Eds.), The handbook of organizational culture and climate (2nd ed.): 101–118. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar
  • Van Maanen J., Kunda G. 1989. “Real feelings”: Emotional expression and organizational culture. Research in Organizational Behavior, 11: 43–103. Google Scholar
  • Vogus T. J., Rothman N. B., Sutcliffe K. M., Weick K. E. 2014. The affective foundations of high-reliability organizing. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35: 592–596. Google Scholar
  • Vuori T. O., Huy Q. N. 2016. Distributed attention and shared emotions in the innovation process: How Nokia lost the smartphone battle. Administrative Science Quarterly, 61: 9–51. Google Scholar
  • Weaver G. R., Treviño L. K., Cochran P. L. 1999. Corporate ethics programs as control systems: Influences of executive commitment and environmental factors. Academy of Management Journal, 42: 41–57.AbstractGoogle Scholar
  • Wegener D. T., Petty R. 1996. Effects of mood on persuasion processes: Enhancing, reducing, and biasing scrutiny of attitude-relevant information. In Martin L. L.Tesser A. (Eds.), Striving and feeling: Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation: 329–362. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Google Scholar
  • Weick K. E., Sutcliffe K. M., Obstfeld D. 1999. Organizing for high reliability: Processes of collective mindfulness. Research in Organizational Behavior, 21: 81–123. Google Scholar
  • Wharton A. S., Erickson R. J. 1993. Managing emotions on the job and at home: Understanding the consequences of multiple emotional roles. Academy of Management Review, 18: 457–486.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Zhou J., George J. M. 2001. When job dissatisfaction leads to creativity: Encouraging the expression of voice. Academy of Management Journal, 44: 682–696.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Zohar D., Hofmann D. A. 2012. Organizational culture and climate. In Kozlowski S. W. J. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of industrial and organizational psychology: 643–665. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
  • Zohar D., Luria G. 2005. A multilevel model of safety climate: Cross-level relationships between organization and group-level climates. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90: 616–628. Google Scholar
Academy of Management
  Academy of Management
  555 Pleasantville Road, Suite N200
  Briarcliff Manor, NY 10510-8020, USA
  Phone: +1 (914) 326-1800
  Fax: +1 (914) 326-1900