Published Online:27 Jul 2023https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2021.0185
Abstract
Entrepreneurship research, as with most organizational research, almost always adopts a race neutral lens through which racial inequality is understood as exogenous to organizational theories. This approach is problematic because entrepreneurship is an embedded process and cannot be understood independent of its contexts, and the contexts in which it unfolds are often marked by racial inequality despite the apparent absence of overt racial antipathy. We examine more than 100 articles that address entrepreneurship and race, with a focus on underrepresented minorities in the United States: African, Hispanic, and Native Americans. From these articles, we not only derive why minority entrepreneurs continue to be disadvantaged despite widespread support for their entrepreneurship, but we also elevate themes of racial agency endemic to entrepreneurship from marginalized racial positions. We argue that entrepreneurship research needs to consider race; that is, scholars need to incorporate racialized structures into their theorizing. Doing so not only will highlight the structural underpinnings of racial disadvantage for underrepresented minority entrepreneurs, but it also casts entrepreneurship as an essential mechanism for racial agency.
REFERENCES
- Notes: An asterisk (*) denotes an article in the review data set. Without an *, the article is cited in the paper, not in the review data set. Google Scholar
- *
Achidi Ndofor, H. , &Priem, R. L. 2011. Immigrant entrepreneurs, the ethnic enclave strategy, and venture performance. Journal of Management, 37: 790–818. Google Scholar - 2006. Inequality regimes: Gender, class, and race in organizations. Gender & Society, 20: 441–464. Google Scholar
- 2002. Social capital: Prospects for a new concept. Academy of Management Review, 27: 17–40.Link , Google Scholar
- *
Aguilera, M. B. 2009. Ethnic enclaves and the earnings of self-employed Latinos. Small Business Economics, 33: 413–425. Google Scholar - *
Agius Vallejo, J. 2015. Levelling the playing field: Patterns of ethnic philanthropy among Los Angeles’ middle- and upper-class Latino entrepreneurs. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38: 125–140. Google Scholar - *
Agius Vallejo, J. , &Canizales, S. L. 2016. Latino/a professionals as entrepreneurs: How race, class, and gender shape entrepreneurial incorporation. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39: 1637–1656. Google Scholar - *
Agius Vallejo, J. A. , &Canizales, S. L. 2021. Ethnoracial capitalism and the limits of ethnic solidarity. Social Problems. Forthcoming. Google Scholar - 2021. Exploring the false promise of entrepreneurship through a postfeminist critique of the enterprise policy discourse in Sweden and the U.K. Human Relations, 74: 41–68. Google Scholar
- *
Ahn, T. 2011. Racial differences in self-employment exits. Small Business Economics, 36: 169–186. Google Scholar - 2019. Reducing minority discrimination at the front line: Combined survey and field experimental evidence. Journal of Public Administration: Research and Theory, 29: 429–444. Google Scholar
- 2013. “Non-white” gentrification in Chicago’s Bronzeville and Pilsen: Racial economy and the intraurban contingency of urban redevelopment. Urban Affairs Review, 49: 435–467. Google Scholar
- *
Anglin, A. H. ,Courtney, C. , &Allison, T. H. 2022. Venturing for others, subject to role expectations? A role congruity theory approach to social venture crowd funding. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 46: 421–448. Google Scholar - *
Anglin, A. H. ,Wolfe, M. T. ,Short, J. C. ,McKenny, A. F. , &Pidduck, R. J. 2018. Narcissistic rhetoric and crowdfunding performance: A social role theory perspective. Journal of Business Venturing, 33: 780–812. Google Scholar - 2021. Minority and immigrant youth exposure to community violence: The differential effects of family management and peers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36: NP1883–NP1912. Google Scholar
- *
Aplin, J. C., Jr ., &Leveto, G. A. 1976. Factors that influence the business success of minority entrepreneurs. American Journal of Small Business, 1: 30–36. Google Scholar - 2022. Racial biases in the publication process: Exploring expressions and solutions. Journal of Management, 48: 7–16. Google Scholar
- 2005. Creating something from nothing: Resource construction through entrepreneurial bricolage. Administrative Science Quarterly, 50: 329–366. Google Scholar
- 2006. The development of implicit attitudes: Evidence of race evaluations from ages 6 and 10 and adulthood. Psychological Science, 17: 53–58. Google Scholar
- *
Basu, D. , &Werbner, P. 2001. Bootstrap capitalism and the culture industries: A critique of invidious comparisons in the study of ethnic entrepreneurship. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 24: 236–262. Google Scholar - *
Bates, T. 1974. Financing black enterprise. Journal of Finance, 29: 747–761. Google Scholar - *
Bates, T. 1995. Self-employment entry across industry groups. Journal of Business Venturing, 10: 143–156. Google Scholar - *
Bates, T. , &Bradford, W. 2009. The impact of institutional sources of capital upon the minority-oriented venture capital industry. Small Business Economics, 33: 485–496. Google Scholar - *
Bates, T. ,Bradford, W. D. , &Jackson, W. E. 2018. Are minority-owned businesses underserved by financial markets? Evidence from the private-equity industry. Small Business Economics, 50: 445–461. Google Scholar Bella Research Group . 2019. 2018 diverse asset management study. Retrieved from https://www.bellaprivatemarkets.com/2018-diverse-asset-management-study Google Scholar- *
Benson, D. A. ,Lies, A. K. ,Okunade, A. A. , &Wunnava, P. V. 2011. Economic impact of a private sector micro-financing scheme in South Dakota. Small Business Economics, 36: 157–168. Google Scholar - *
Bento, A. , &Brown, T. N. 2021. Belief in systemic racism and self-employment among working blacks. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 44: 21–38. Google Scholar - ., 2000. Underrepresented minorities in medicine. Journal of the American Medical Association, 284: 1138–1139. Google Scholar
- 2023. “As expected”: Theoretical implications for racialized administrative power as the status quo. Journal of Public Administration: Research and Theory, 33: 30–42. Google Scholar
- 2014. Rejected, shackled, and alone: The impact of systemic restricted choice on minority consumers’ construction of self. Journal of Consumer Research, 41: 451–474. Google Scholar
- 1997. Rethinking racism: Toward a structural interpretation. American Sociological Review, 62: 465–480. Google Scholar
- *
Boorman, J. T. , &Kwast, M. L. 1974. The start-up experience of minority-owned commercial banks: A comparative analysis. Journal of Finance, 29: 1123–1141. Google Scholar - *
Boulton, T. J. ,Shohfi, T. D. , &Zhu, P. 2019. Angels or sharks? The role of personal characteristics in angel investment decisions. Journal of Small Business Management, 57: 1280–1303. Google Scholar - *
Boyd, R. L. 1990. Black and Asian self-employment in large metropolitan areas: A comparative analysis. Social Problems, 37: 258–274. Google Scholar - *
Boyd, R. L. 1991. A contextual analysis of black self-employment in large metropolitan areas, 1970–1980. Social Forces, 70: 409–429. Google Scholar - 2008. Defensive development: The role of racial conflict in gentrification. Urban Affairs Review, 43: 751–776. Google Scholar
- *
Bradford, W. D. , &Osborne, A. E. 1976. The entrepreneurship decision and black economic development. American Economic Review, 66: 316–319. Google Scholar - *
Brown, J. R. ,Cookson, J. A. , &Heimer, R. Z. 2017. Law and finance matter: Lessons from externally imposed courts. Review of Financial Studies, 30: 1019–1051. Google Scholar - 2013. Entrepreneurship as a solution to poverty. Journal of Business Venturing, 28: 683–689. Google Scholar
- 2001. Defining the field of research in entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Venturing, 16: 165–180. Google Scholar
- 2008. Effects of racial and sexual harassment on work and the psychological well-being of African American women. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13: 137–151. Google Scholar
- 2019.
Bureaucracy, discrimination, and the racialized character of organizational life . In M. E. Wooten (Ed.), Race, organizations, and the organizing process (research in the sociology of organizations, vol. 60): 151–169. Bingley, U.K.: Emerald. Google Scholar - 2017. Controlling administrative discretion promotes social equity? Evidence from a natural experiment. Public Administration Review, 77: 80–89. Google Scholar
- *
Chaganti, R. , &Greene, P. G. 2002. Who are ethnic entrepreneurs? A study of entrepreneurs’ ethnic involvement and business characteristics. Journal of Small Business Management, 40: 126–143. Google Scholar - 2017. Social entrepreneurship as emancipatory work. Journal of Business Venturing, 32: 657–673. Google Scholar
- *
Chatterji, A. K. , &Seamans, R. C. 2012. Entrepreneurial finance, credit cards, and race. Journal of Financial Economics, 106: 182–195. Google Scholar - *
Cheng, S. 2015. Potential lending discrimination? Insights from small business financing and new venture survival. Journal of Small Business Management, 53: 905–923. Google Scholar - *
Chrisman, J. J. ,Chua, J. H. , &Steier, L. P. 2002. The influence of national culture and family involvement on entrepreneurial perceptions and performance at the state level. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 26: 113–130. Google Scholar - 2019. “The talk” regarding minority youth interactions with police. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 17: 379–404. Google Scholar
- *
Cooper, A. C. , &Artz, K. W. 1995. Determinants of satisfaction for entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 10: 439–457. Google Scholar - *
Cooper, A. C. ,Gimeno-Gascon, F. J. , &Woo, C. Y. 1994. Initial human and financial capital as predictors of new venture performance. Journal of Business Venturing, 9: 371–395. Google Scholar - *
Cooper, A. C. ,Woo, C. Y. , &Dunkelberg, W. C. 1989. Entrepreneurship and the initial size of firms. Journal of Business Venturing, 4: 317–332. Google Scholar - 2004. The role of normative political ideology in consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 31: 511–528. Google Scholar
- 2020. Immigrant entrepreneurship: A review and research agenda. Journal of Business Research, 113: 25–38. Google Scholar
- 2011. Social entrepreneurship: A critique and future directions. Organization Science, 22: 1203–1213. Google Scholar
- 2022. Racial identity, group consciousness, and attitudes: A framework for assessing multiracial self‐classification. American Journal of Political Science, 66: 570–586. Google Scholar
- 2014, January. Criminal stigma, race, gender, and employment: An expanded assessment of the consequences of imprisonment for employment. Retrieved from https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/244756.pdf Google Scholar
- 1988.
Interest and agency in institutional theory . In L. Zucker (Ed.), Institutional patterns and organizations: Culture and environment: 3–21. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger. Google Scholar - *
Dougherty, D. M. 1978. A study of attitudinal factors in the consulting relationship with minority-owned small businesses. American Journal of Small Business, 3: 3–15. Google Scholar - *
Dutta, S. 2019. Seeing parochially and acting locally: Social exposure, problem identification and social entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Venturing, 34: art. 105942. Google Scholar - 2022. Reproducing inequality in a formally antiracist organization: The case of racialized career pathways in the United Methodist Church. American Journal of Sociology, 127: 1507–1550. Google Scholar
- *
Ede, F. O. ,Panigrahi, B. ,Stuart, J. , &Calcich, S. 2000. Ethics in small minority businesses. Journal of Business Ethics, 26: 133–146. Google Scholar - *
Edelman, L. F. ,Brush, C. G. ,Manolova, T. S. , &Greene, P. G. 2010. Start‐up motivations and growth intentions of minority nascent entrepreneurs. Journal of Small Business Management, 48: 174–196. Google Scholar - 2012. Race and reflexivity. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 35: 574–599. Google Scholar
- 2021. Self-compassion when coping with venture obstacles: Loving-kindness meditation and entrepreneurial fear of failure. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 45: 263–290. Google Scholar
- *
Enz, C. A. ,Dollinger, M. J. , &Daily, C. M. 1990. The value orientations of minority and non-minority small business owners. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 15: 23–35. Google Scholar - 1989. Immigrant entrepreneurship: Effects of ethnic market size and isolated labor pool. American Sociological Review, 54: 950–962. Google Scholar
- *
Fairchild, G. B. 2008a. The influence of residential segregation and its correlates on ethnic enterprise in urban areas. Journal of Business Venturing, 23: 513–527. Google Scholar - *
Fairchild, G. B. 2008b. Residential segregation influences on the likelihood of black and white self-employment. Journal of Business Venturing, 23: 46–74. Google Scholar - *
Fairchild, G. 2009a. Racial segregation in the public schools and adult labor market outcomes: The case of black Americans. Small Business Economics, 33: 467–484. Google Scholar - *
Fairchild, G. B. 2009b. Residential segregation influences on the likelihood of ethnic self-employment. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33: 373–395. Google Scholar - *
Fairchild, G. B. 2010. Intergenerational ethnic enclave influences on the likelihood of being self-employed. Journal of Business Venturing, 25: 290–304. Google Scholar - *
Fairlie, R. W. 2004. Recent trends in ethnic and racial business ownership. Small Business Economics, 23: 203–218. Google Scholar - *
Fairlie, R. , &Fossen, F. M. 2021. Did the Paycheck Protection Program and Economic Injury Disaster Loan program get disbursed to minority communities in the early stages of COVID-19? Small Business Economics, 58: 1–14. Google Scholar - *
Fairlie, R. , &Marion, J. 2012. Affirmative action programs and business ownership among minorities and women. Small Business Economics, 39: 319–339. Google Scholar - *
Fairlie, R. ,Robb, A. , &Robinson, D. T. 2022. Black and white: Access to capital among minority-owned start-ups. Management Science, 68: 2377–2400. Google Scholar - *
Feagin, J. R. , &Imani, N. 1994. Racial barriers to African American entrepreneurship: An exploratory study. Social Problems, 41: 562–584. Google Scholar - *
Fischer, M. J. , &Massey, D. S. 2000. Residential segregation and ethnic enterprise in U.S. metropolitan areas. Social Problems, 47: 408–424. Google Scholar - *
Fisher, M. , &Lewin, P. A. 2018. Push and pull factors and Hispanic self-employment in the USA. Small Business Economics, 51: 1055–1070. Google Scholar - *
Fisher, M. , &Lewin, P. A. 2021. Profitable entrepreneurship or marginal self-employment? The bimodality of Latina self-employment in the United States. Journal of Small Business Management, 59: 1127–1151. Google Scholar - *
Freeland, R. E. , &Keister, L. A. 2016. How does race and ethnicity affect persistence in immature ventures? Journal of Small Business Management, 54: 210–228. Google Scholar - *
Fry, F. L. 1980. Affirmative action how it affects small business. American Journal of Small Business, 5: 23–29. Google Scholar - *
Gadhia, L. , &Tawil, J. J. 1977. An analysis of Small Business Administration’s Surety Bond Guarantee Program. American Journal of Small Business, 2: 1–11. Google Scholar - *
Gartner, W. B. , &Bhat, S. 2000. Environmental and ownership characteristics of small businesses and their impact on development. Journal of Small Business Management, 38: 250–266. Google Scholar - *
Garvin, W. J. 1971. The small business capital gap: The special case of minority enterprise. Journal of Finance, 26: 445–457. Google Scholar - 2016. Understanding and tackling societal grand challenges through management research. Academy of Management Journal, 59: 1880–1895.Link , Google Scholar
- 1979. Central problems in social theory. London, U.K.: Palgrave. Google Scholar
- 1984. Elements of the theory of structuration. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Google Scholar
- *
Gomolka, E. 1977. Characteristics of minority entrepreneurs and small business enterprises. American Journal of Small Business, 2: 12–21. Google Scholar - *
Gomolka, E. G. 1978. The social responsibility of minority-owned small business companies. American Journal of Small Business, 2: 1–12. Google Scholar - *
Gorbatai, A. ,Younkin, P. , &Burtch, G. 2021. Collateral damage: The relationship between high-salience events and variation in racial discrimination. Organization Science. Forthcoming. Google Scholar - 2011. Power as practice: A micro-sociological analysis of the dynamics of emancipatory entrepreneurship. Organization Studies, 32: 211–229. Google Scholar
- 2017. Activist choice homophily and the crowdfunding of female founders. Administrative Science Quarterly, 62: 341–374. Google Scholar
- 2003. Social networks and entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 28: 1–22. Google Scholar
- 2018. Biracial American colorism: Passing for white. American Behavioral Scientist, 62: 2072–2086. Google Scholar
- *
Hegde, D. , &Tumlinson, J. 2014. Does social proximity enhance business partnerships? Theory and evidence from ethnicity’s role in U.S. venture capital. Management Science, 60: 2355–2380. Google Scholar - *
Herrmann, J. F. 1982. Technology transfer to minority business: Results of a pilot program. American Journal of Small Business, 6: 27–39. Google Scholar - *
Herrmann, J. F. 1984. An analysis of SBA loan repayment performance: Comparisons by minority group. American Journal of Small Business, 8: 2–8. Google Scholar - 2012. Neighborhood disparities in access to healthy foods and their effects on environmental justice. American Journal of Public Health, 102: 1644–1654. Google Scholar
- 2021. A lighter shade of brown? Racial formation and gentrification in Latino Los Angeles. Social Problems, 68: 63–79. Google Scholar
- 2015. Entrepreneurship, innovation and regional growth: A network theory. Small Business Economics, 45: 103–128. Google Scholar
- 2021. Corporate board gender diversity and ethnic ownership of U.S. banks. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 24: 258–276. Google Scholar
- 2010. Improving the rate of success for underrepresented racial minorities in STEM fields: Insights from a national project. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2010: 5–15. Google Scholar
- 2016. Living the dream? Assessing the “entrepreneurship as emancipation” perspective in a developed region. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 40: 81–110. Google Scholar
- *
Joshi, A. M. ,Inouye, T. M. , &Robinson, J. A. 2018. How does agency workforce diversity influence Federal R&D funding of minority and women technology entrepreneurs? An analysis of the SBIR and STTR programs, 2001–2011. Small Business Economics, 50: 499–519. Google Scholar - 2016. Whitened résumés: Race and self-presentation in the labor market. Administrative Science Quarterly, 61: 469–502. Google Scholar
- 2004. Race, bureaucratic discretion, and the implementation of welfare reform. American Journal of Political Science, 48: 314–327. Google Scholar
- 2004. Women and minorities in state government agencies. Public Personnel Management, 33: 165–180. Google Scholar
- *
Klyver, K. , &Foley, D. 2012. Networking and culture in entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 24: 561–588. Google Scholar - *
Koellinger, P. , &Minniti, M. 2006. Not for lack of trying: American entrepreneurship in black and white. Small Business Economics, 27: 59–79. Google Scholar - 2022. How narratives of racial progress create barriers to diversity, equity, and inclusion in organizations. Current Opinion in Psychology, 43: 108–113. Google Scholar
- *
Krohn, F. B. , &Rogers, D. P. 1977. An audience analysis of inner city black businesspeople. American Journal of Small Business, 1: 4–12. Google Scholar - *
Kwon, S. W. ,Heflin, C. , &Ruef, M. 2013. Community social capital and entrepreneurship. American Sociological Review, 78: 980–1008. Google Scholar - 2022. The social imaginary of emancipation in entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 46: 393–420. Google Scholar
- *
Lashley, K. , &Pollock, T. G. 2020. Dancing with giants: How small women- and minority-owned firms use soft power to manage asymmetric relationships with larger partners. Organization Science, 31: 1313–1335. Google Scholar - 2021. Capitalism and management research: The worst of times, the best of times. Academy of Management Review, 46: 613–622.Link , Google Scholar
- 2022. Am I next? The spillover effects of mega-threats on avoidant behaviors at work. Academy of Management Journal, 65: 720–748.Link , Google Scholar
- 2014. A theoretical analysis of the role of social networks in entrepreneurship. Research Policy, 43: 1157–1163. Google Scholar
- *
Light, I. , &Dana, L. P. 2013. Boundaries of social capital in entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37: 603–624. Google Scholar - 2008. The colors of poverty: Why racial and ethnic disparities persist. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Google Scholar
- 2020. Businesses owned by women and minorities have grown. Will COVID-19 undo that? Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/research/businesses-owned-by-women-and-minorities-have-grown-will-covid-19-undo-that Google Scholar
- *
Lofstrom, M. , &Bates, T. 2009. Latina entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 33: 427–439. Google Scholar - *
Lofstrom, M. , &Bates, T. 2013. African Americans’ pursuit of self-employment. Small Business Economics, 40: 73–86. Google Scholar - *
Logan, J. R. ,Alba, R. D. , &McNulty, T. L. 1994. Ethnic economies in metropolitan regions: Miami and beyond. Social Forces, 72: 691–724. Google Scholar - *
Marion, J. 2009. Firm racial segregation and affirmative action in the highway construction industry. Small Business Economics, 33: 441–453. Google Scholar - *
Martin, W. ,Wech, B. A. ,Sandefur, J. , &Pan, R. 2006. African American small business owners’ attitudes toward business training. Journal of Small Business Management, 44: 577–591. Google Scholar - 2018. Emancipation through digital entrepreneurship? A critical realist analysis. Organization, 25: 585–608. Google Scholar
- 2021. What makes an entrepreneurship study entrepreneurial? Toward a unified theory of entrepreneurial agency. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 45: 1197–1238. Google Scholar
- *
Menzies, T. V. ,Filion, L. J. ,Brenner, G. A. , &Elgie, S. 2007. Measuring ethnic community involvement: Development and initial testing of an index. Journal of Small Business Management, 45: 267–282. Google Scholar - *
Michaelides, M. 2021. Nascent entrepreneurship and race: Evidence from the GATE experiment. Journal of Small Business Management, 59: 1211–1249. Google Scholar - *
Mitchell, K. , &Pearce, D. K. 2011. Lending technologies, lending specialization, and minority access to small-business loans. Small Business Economics, 37: 277–304. Google Scholar - *
Model, S. 1997. Ethnic economy and industry in mid-twentieth century Gotham. Social Problems, 44: 445–463. Google Scholar - 2011. Retail gentrification and race: The case of Alberta Street in Portland, Oregon. Urban Affairs Review, 47: 413–432. Google Scholar
- 2009. Gentrification in Black face?: The return of the Black middle class to urban neighborhoods. Urban Geography, 30: 118–142. Google Scholar
- *
Mora, M. T. , &Dávila, A. 2014. Gender and business outcomes of black and Hispanic new entrepreneurs in the United States. American Economic Review, 104: 245–249. Google Scholar - *
Morris, M. , &Schindehutte, M. 2005. Entrepreneurial values and the ethnic enterprise: An examination of six subcultures. Journal of Small Business Management, 43: 453–479. Google Scholar - *
Natke, P. A. 2008. Asset substitution and capital use by firms facing financial repression. International Journal of the Economics of Business, 15: 129–145. Google Scholar - 2021. Saving face while (not) talking about race: How undergraduates inhabit racialized structures at an elite and predominantly White college. Social Problems: art. spab045. Google Scholar
- *
Neumeyer, X. ,Santos, S. C. ,Caetano, A. , &Kalbfleisch, P. 2019. Entrepreneurship ecosystems and women entrepreneurs: A social capital and network approach. Small Business Economics, 53: 475–489. Google Scholar - *
Neville, F. ,Forrester, J. K. ,O’Toole, J. , &Riding, A. 2018. “Why even bother trying?”: Examining discouragement among racial‐minority entrepreneurs. Journal of Management Studies, 55: 424–456. Google Scholar - 2021. The dark side of the ivory tower: Examining incivility and microaggressions against ethnic minorities in academia [Unpublished dissertation]. Western Kentucky University. Google Scholar
- 2020. Entrepreneurship and subjective well-being: The mediating role of psychological functioning. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 44: 557–586. Google Scholar
- 1992. The emperor has no clothes: Rewriting “Race in organizations.” Academy of Management Review, 17: 487–513.Link , Google Scholar
- 2021. Reflections on the continuing denial of the centrality of “race” in management and organization studies. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion, 40: 212–224. Google Scholar
- 2021. Controlling management to deliver diversity and inclusion: Prospects and limits. Human Resource Management Journal, 31: 619–638. Google Scholar
NVCA, Venture Forward, & Deloitte . 2021. VC human capital survey. Retrieved from https://nvca.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/vc-human-capital-survey-3rd-edition-2021.pdf Google Scholar- 2020.
The consequences of the American caste system . In U. Neisser (Ed.), The school achievement of minority children: 19–56. Abingdon, U.K.: Routledge. Google Scholar - *
Orozco, M. 2022. The salience of ethnic identity in entrepreneurship: An ethnic strategies of business action framework. Small Business Economics, 59: 243–268. Google Scholar - *
Oyelere, R. U. , &Belton, W. 2013. Black–White gap in self-employment. Does intra-race heterogeneity exist? Small Business Economics, 41: 25–39. Google Scholar - *
Page, A. L. ,Cowen, S. , &Cohen, M. 1979. Loan terms and loan repayment performance: The experience with minority small businesses. American Journal of Small Business, 4: 10–21. Google Scholar - 2021. Designing for all: Consumer response to inclusive design. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 31: 360–381. Google Scholar
- 2015. When societal norms and social identity collide: The race talk dilemma for racial minority children. Social Psychological & Personality Science, 6: 887–895. Google Scholar
- *
Pearson, J. N. ,Fawcett, S. E. , &Cooper, A. 1994. Challenges and approaches to purchasing from minority-owned firms: A longitudinal examination. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18: 71–88. Google Scholar - *
Peterson, M. F. 1995. Leading Cuban-American entrepreneurs: The process of developing motives, abilities, and resources. Human Relations, 48: 1193–1215. Google Scholar - *
Peterson, M. F. , &Roquebert, J. 1993. Success patterns of Cuban-American enterprises: Implications for entrepreneurial communities. Human Relations, 46: 921–937. Google Scholar - *
Portes, A. , &Jensen, L. 1989. The enclave and the entrants: Patterns of ethnic enterprise in Miami before and after Mariel. American Sociological Review, 54: 929–949. Google Scholar - *
Portes, A. , &Zhou, M. 1996. Self-employment and the earnings of immigrants. American Sociological Review, 61: 219–230. Google Scholar - 1994. Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67: 741–763. Google Scholar
- 2006. Social dominance orientation and the ideological legitimization of social policy. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28: 1853–1875. Google Scholar
- *
Puryear, A. N. ,Rogoff, E. G. ,Lee, M.-S. ,Heck, R. K. Z. ,Grossman, E. B. ,Haynes, G. W. , &Onochie, J. 2008. Sampling minority business owners and their families: The understudied entrepreneurial experience. Journal of Small Business Management, 46: 422–455. Google Scholar - 2009. Improving access to services for minority ethnic communities. Learning Disability Practice, 12: 14–18. Google Scholar
- *
Raijman, R. , &Tienda, M. 2003. Ethnic foundations of economic transactions: Mexican and Korean immigrant entrepreneurs in Chicago. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 26: 783–801. Google Scholar - *
Rakshit, A. , &Peterson, J. 2022. Racial disparities in the small business loan market. Journal of Small Business Management. Forthcoming. Google Scholar - *
Ramirez, H. , &Hondagneu-Sotelo, P. 2009. Mexican immigrant gardeners: Entrepreneurs or exploited workers? Social Problems, 56: 70–88. Google Scholar - 2019. A theory of racialized organizations. American Sociological Review, 84: 26–53. Google Scholar
- 2023. Racialized burdens: Applying racialized organization theory to the administrative state. Journal of Public Administration: Research and Theory, 33: 139–152. Google Scholar
- 2014. 60 years after Brown: Trends and consequences of school segregation. Annual Review of Sociology, 40: 199–218. Google Scholar
- *
Reynolds, P. D. ,Carter, N. M. ,Gartner, W. B. , &Greene, P. G. 2004. The prevalence of nascent entrepreneurs in the United States: Evidence from the panel study of entrepreneurial dynamics. Small Business Economics, 23: 263–284. Google Scholar - . 2009. Entrepreneuring as emancipation. Academy of Management Review, 34: 477–491.Link , Google Scholar
- *
Robb, A. , &Robinson, D. T. 2018. Testing for racial bias in business credit scores. Small Business Economics, 50: 429–443. Google Scholar - *
Rodriguez, P. ,Tuggle, C. S. , &Hackett, S. M. 2009. An exploratory study of how potential “family and household capital” impacts new venture start-up rates. Family Business Review, 22: 259–272. Google Scholar - 2019.
Race and organization theory: Reflections and open questions . In M. E. Wooten (Ed.), Race, organizations, and the organizing process: 15–23. Bingley, U.K.: Emerald. Google Scholar - 2004. Race, class, and gender in the United States: An integrated study. London, U.K.: Macmillan. Google Scholar
- 2013. The microstructures of rhetorical strategy in social entrepreneurship: Building legitimacy through heroes and villains. Journal of Business Venturing, 28: 98–116. Google Scholar
- *
Ruef, M. ,Aldrich, H. E. , &Carter, N. M. 2003. The structure of founding teams: Homophily, strong ties, and isolation among U.S. entrepreneurs. American Sociological Review, 68: 195–222. Google Scholar - 2018. Jim Crow, ethnic enclaves, and status attainment: Occupational mobility among U.S. Blacks, 1880–1940. American Journal of Sociology, 124: 814–859. Google Scholar
- 2019. Entrepreneurship and eudaimonic well-being: Five venues for new science. Journal of Business Venturing, 34: 646–663. Google Scholar
- 2019. Social entrepreneurship research: Past achievements and future promises. Journal of Management, 45: 70–95. Google Scholar
- *
Santellano, K. 2021. Compounded inequality: How the U.S. Paycheck Protection Program is failing Los Angeles Latino small businesses. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 44: 794–805. Google Scholar - 2006. Entrepreneurship as the nexus of individual and opportunity: A structuration view. Journal of Business Venturing, 21: 286–305. Google Scholar
- 2018. Against teleology in the study of race: Toward the abolition of the progress paradigm. Sociological Theory, 36: 315–342. Google Scholar
- ., 1992. A theory of structure: Duality, agency, and transformation. American Journal of Sociology, 98: 1–29. Google Scholar
- 2000. Prior knowledge and the discovery of entrepreneurial opportunities. Organization Science, 11: 448–469. Google Scholar
- 2000. The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research. Academy of Management Review, 25: 217–226.Link , Google Scholar
- 1999. Toward a reconciliation of the definitional issues in the field of corporate entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 23: 11–28. Google Scholar
- *
Shelton, L. M. 2010. Fighting an uphill battle: Expansion barriers, intra–industry social stratification, and minority firm growth. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 34: 379–398. Google Scholar - *
Shelton, L. M. , &Minniti, M. 2018. Enhancing product market access: Minority entrepreneurship, status leveraging, and preferential procurement programs. Small Business Economics, 50: 481–498. Google Scholar - 2019. Entrepreneurship and well-being: The role of psychological autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Journal of Business Venturing, 34: art. 105875. Google Scholar
- 2021. For the benefit of all? State-led gentrification in a contested city. Urban Studies, 58: 2605–2622. Google Scholar
- 1994. Social dominance orientation, hierarchy attenuators and hierarchy enhancers: Social dominance theory and the criminal justice system. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24: 338–366. Google Scholar
- 2019. The diversity gap in the public–private partnership industry: An examination of women and visible minorities in senior leadership positions. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 90: 393–414. Google Scholar
- 2009. Obstacles and solutions for underrepresented minorities in technology. Palo Alto, CA: Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology. Google Scholar
- 2018. A longitudinal comparison of capital structure between young for-profit social and commercial enterprises. Journal of Business Venturing, 33: 225–240. Google Scholar
- *
Somashekhar, M. 2019. Neither here nor there? How the new geography of ethnic minority entrepreneurship disadvantages African Americans. Social Problems, 66: 373–391. Google Scholar - *
Sonfield, M. C. 2005. A new U.S. definition of “minority business”: Lessons from the first four years. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 17: 223–235. Google Scholar - *
Sonfield, M. C. 1978. An attitudinal comparison of black and white small businessmen. American Journal of Small Business, 2: 38–45. Google Scholar - *
Spener, D. , &Bean, F. D. 1999. Self-employment concentration and earnings among Mexican immigrants in the US. Social Forces, 77: 1021–1047. Google Scholar - 2023. Happy entrepreneurs? Everywhere? A meta-analysis of entrepreneurship and wellbeing. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 47: 553–593. Google Scholar
- 2021. Schools as racialized organizations in policy and practice. Sociology Compass, 15: art. e12940. Google Scholar
- 2005. Access to health care for ethnic minority populations. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 81: 141–147. Google Scholar
- 1982. Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 33: 1–39. Google Scholar
- *
Tesfai, R. , &Thomas, K. J. 2020. Dimensions of inequality: Black immigrants’ occupational segregation in the United States. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 6: 1–21. Google Scholar - *
Thomas, M. K. 2009. The impact of education histories on the decision to become self-employed: A study of young, aspiring, minority business owners. Small Business Economics, 33: 455–466. Google Scholar - 2018. How entrepreneurial ecosystems take form: Evidence from social impact initiatives in Seattle. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 12: 96–116. Google Scholar
- 2021. Statistical discrimination and the rationalization of stereotypes. American Sociological Review, 86: 93–122. Google Scholar
- 2020. Selling black places on Airbnb: Colonial discourse and the marketing of black communities in New York City. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 52: 553–572. Google Scholar
- 2011. Bridging institutional entrepreneurship and the creation of new organizational forms: A multilevel model. Organization Science, 22: 60–80. Google Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau . 2020. ABS release provides data on minority- and women-owned businesses [Press release]. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2020/annual-business-survey-data.html Google ScholarU.S. Census Bureau . 2021. Annual business survey. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/programssurveys/abs/data.html Google ScholarU.S. Small Business Administration Office of Advocacy . 2021. 2021 small business profiles for the States, the District of Columbia, and the U.S. Retrieved from https://cdn.advocacy.sba.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/30144808/2021-Small-BusinessProfiles-For-The-States.pdf Google Scholar- 2012. Strategy-as-practice: Taking social practices seriously. Academy of Management Annals, 6: 285–336.Link , Google Scholar
- *
Valdez, Z. 2008. The effect of social capital on White, Korean, Mexican and Black business owners’ earnings in the US. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34: 955–973. Google Scholar - *
Valdez, Z. 2016. Intersectionality, the household economy, and ethnic entrepreneurship. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39: 1618–1636. Google Scholar - *
Valdez, Z. 2020. The great recession and precarious wealth among middle-class Mexican-origin entrepreneurs. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 46: 3874–3891. Google Scholar - *
Van Fleet, E. W. , &Van Fleet, D. D. 1985. Entrepreneurship and black capitalism. American Journal of Small Business, 10: 31–40. Google Scholar - 1997. Value at risk for a mixture of normal distributions: The use of quasi-Bayesian estimation techniques. Economic Perspectives, 21: 2–13. Google Scholar
- *
Villemez, W. J. , &Beggs, J. J. 1984. Black capitalism and black inequality: Some sociological considerations. Social Forces, 63: 117–144. Google Scholar - *
Vincent, V. C. 1996. Decision-making policies among Mexican American small business entrepreneurs. Journal of Small Business Management, 34: 1–13. Google Scholar - *
Waldinger, R. 1995. The “other side” of embeddedness: A case‐study of the interplay of economy and ethnicity. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 18: 555–580. Google Scholar - *
Walstad, W. B. , &Kourilsky, M. L. 1998. Entrepreneurial attitudes and knowledge of black youth. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 23: 5–18. Google Scholar - 2011. Contextualizing entrepreneurship—conceptual challenges and ways forward. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35: 165–184. Google Scholar
- 2019. Testing hypersensitive responses: Ethnic minorities are not more sensitive to microaggressions, they just experience them more frequently. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 45: 1619–1632. Google Scholar
- ., 1999. Right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77: 126–134. Google Scholar
- 2019. Entrepreneurship and well-being: Past, present, and future. Journal of Business Venturing, 34: 579–588. Google Scholar
- 2021. Let’s focus on solutions to entrepreneurial ill-being! Recovery interventions to enhance entrepreneurial well-being. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 45: 1307–1338. Google Scholar
- 2015. End of an era? Managerial losses of African American and Latinos in the public sector. Social Science Research, 54: 36–49. Google Scholar
- *
Wingfield, A. H. , &Taylor, T. 2016. Race, gender, and class in entrepreneurship: Intersectional counterframes and black business owners. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39: 1676–1696. Google Scholar - 2021. Long shadows: The Black–White gap in multigenerational poverty. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Long-Shadows_Final.pdf Google Scholar
- *
Younkin, P. , &Kuppuswamy, V. 2018. The colorblind crowd? Founder race and performance in crowdfunding. Management Science, 64: 3269–3287. Google Scholar - *
Younkin, P. , &Kuppuswamy, V. 2019. Discounted: The effect of founder race on the price of new products. Journal of Business Venturing, 34: 389–412. Google Scholar - 2009. New retail capital and neighborhood change: Boutiques and gentrification in New York City. City & Community, 8: 47–64. Google Scholar
